
Book j_i-Li 



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Farm Craft Lessons 



Issued by the Educational Section 

of the 

U. S. Boys' Working Reserve, 

U. S. Employment Service, 

Department of Labor 

PSEPASED AKD EIdITED By 

EUGENE DAVENPORT 

Dean of the College of Agriculture 

University of Illinois 

for 

U. S. BOYS' WORKING RESERVE 



TRAINING THE BOY 

FOR 

NATIONAL SERVICE 



PUBLISHED BY THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 



illlllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllMllllllllli 



United States Boys' Working Reserve^ ^ 

Farm Craft Series 





CONTENTS 


To the Teacher and the School 


Practice Work 


For Those Who Have Farm Experience 


Lesson ] . 


Making the Victory Good 


2. 


When the City Boy Goes to the Farm 


3, 


Craftsmanship 


4. 


The Horse 


5. 


Grooming and Care of the Farm Horse 


6. 


Harnessing and Hitching Up Farm Horses 


7. 


Working Farm Horses 


8. 


The Cow 


9. 


Handling Milk on the Farm 


10. 


Separating and Handling Cream 


11. 


Swine 


12. 


Care of Farm Equipment 


13. 


The W^agon and Its Parts 


14. 


Care of the Wagon 


15. 


The Plow 


16. 


The Mower 


17. 


The Gas Engine 


18. 


The Gas Engine (Continued) 


19. 


Miscellaneous Tools and Supplies 


20. 


Rope and Its Care 


21. 


Some Useful Knots 


22. 


Splicing a Rope 


23. 


Preparation of the Seed Bed 


24. 


Cultivation 


25. 


Insect and Fungous Enemies 


26. 


Spray Mixtures and Their Application 


27. 


Cultivating Corn 


28. 


Shocking Wheat and Oats 


29. 


■Market Gardening 




Oo.^jr M>. 




"\)'ir 1919 



^. - / 






United States Boys* Working Reserve 

Farm Craft Series -yoTz^ 



Su^ 



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TO THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL 

It was inevitable that the United States should be drawn into the Great 
World War, in which more than thirty nations have become involved in 
determining by force whether democracy shall remain upon the earth. 

Substantially all the available energy of the civilized world has been 
engaged in this titanic struggle. Not only has it taxed to the utmost the 
resources of every countrj'- involved, but not an interest, not a family, not 
an individual has remained unaffected, and even when actual hostilities have 
ceased there yet remains the gigantic labor of reconstructing ravaged coun- 
tries, of clothing destitute millions, of feeding starving races, and of estab- 
lishing law and order, for it must not be overlooked that as the power of 
the enemy crumbles, a full half of the world is without a stable government. 
The work of the war is not yet done, and it will be many months before 
"The Boys" come marching home again. Even the cessation of hostilities 
and the promise of peace will make no immediate change in the need for 
additional labor on the land. 

THE UNITED STATES BOYS' WORKING RESERVE 

So desperate is the need for labor now and for many months to come, 
and so easy is it for the high school boy to render valuable service in the 
field during the growing season with but little interruption to his educa- 
tional progress, that the Government of the United States is calling upon 
the high schools of the . country everywhere to do their utmost in three 
definite lines of special service: 

1. To enlist in the Boys' Working Reserve for sumrner work upon the 
farm, all able-bodied boys from sixteen to eighteen years of age who are 
now in school (together with as many as may be reached of those who have 
left school). 

2. To do everything humanly possible to give these boys the right point 
of view as to the importance and the nature of the service to be rendered 
and of the new associations involved. 

3. To make them really useful to the farmer by teaciung them some 
of the things which they will need to know in order to be instrumental 
in increasing food production and in order not to do more harm than good. 

Enrollment : There has been great activity and much success in reach- 
ing and enrolling city boys for service on the land, but there has been a 
very general neglect of the country hoy who is already engaged upon his 
father's farm. This boy is and has been doing really expert service and 

I 



schools are earnestly entreated to enroll such boys as well as those who go 
for hire, else great injustice will be done the boy who has labored always 
on his father's farm, not only faithfully but skillfully and effectively. In 
no other way, either, can the city boy and the country boy come together 
in the country under conditions mutually agreeable and therefore most favor- 
able to success. 

While the Government does not admit to membership in this particular 
organization youth under sixteen years of age, it none the less earnestly 
invites all such able-bodied and right-minded young people to prepare for 
actual membership by rendering, so far as possible, the same kind of service. 
It invites the schools and all other public agencies to encourage them to that 
end, and to train them for that service by the same methods employed for 
the Boys' Working Reserve. 

The Point of View: The great object to be achieved is the production 
of more food than would othermise be possible. It is not to make more money 
for the boy, because that would take him to the shops where wages are 
higher than upon the farm, but from which he would likely not return to 
school. It is not the making of more money for the farmer, though unless 
the boy is both willing and able to be really useful he will do more damage 
than good. It is a challenge to service on the part of boys too young tQ 
fight. The next most useful thing is to help in the production of food for 
which millions are in dire distress. 

Can the boy make more money in other ways? So could the soldier. 
Is he impatient if a "job" is not ready at once on April i, or May i, as 
he may have hoped and expected? So is the soldier who imagined himself 
walking into Berlin soon after joining the army, but who finds instead that 
he must undergo long periods of training, waiting anxiously for his oppor- 
tunity to serve. One day it will come, but until then his business is to still 
better prepare himself. 

Will he have hardships to endure? Certainly he will. This is no picnic; 
this is business. Upon the whole he will have a good time with most excel- 
lent people, and he will see a new side of life, all of which is good for him. 
But, like the soldier, his "chow" will not always be good nor to be had on 
time, and he will sometimes be wet and hungry and tired. Is he therefore 
to be downhearted? No! If he has the stuff in him of which soldiers are 
made, he will "pack up his troubles (most of which are imaginary) in his 
old kit bag and smile, smile, smile." 

But upon the whole and at the most, he will have it better than the soldier, for he 
will sleep every night under shelter and free from bullets, shells,^ and bombs. 

Above all, this young crusader is not to assume that he is going out into the wilder- 
ness and among illiterates, nor that all which he sees that is different is therefore either 
better or worse than what he has known before. What he has undertaken is an Adven- 
ture in Contentment as well as an enlistment for service. 

Preparation: To assist the schools in preparing the Boys' Working Reserve for 
service on the farm, a series of Farm Craft Lessonsi have been prepared and furnished 
by the Federal Government, to be supplemented by Practical Exercises of the laboratory 
type. 

These lessons and exercises deal not with the theory of agriculture nor with the scien- 
tific principles involved in farming, but rather the processes and the equipment which 
the hoy will he expected to know when he presents himself as a helper m the business 
of food production. It is highly important that both the school and the pupil make no 
mistake at this point. The boy is going as a helper in farm work, not as a partner nor 
as a business adviser. ... . „ , . , . n,, 

The farm is an exceedmgly busy place, especially during the growing season. Ihat 
is the time he will be there; and while the farmer must tell his helper how the work is 
to be done, yet he must not be obliged to devote so much time to that as to lose more 
than he gains in actual and effective work upon the fields, else food production will be 
retarded, not promoted. Hence the importance of doing everything possible by way of 



getting ready before the boy goes where things are in "full blast" with "no time for lonf; 
stories." 

EDUCATION NOT TO BE SACRIFICED 

Germany has put her school boys in the army and cut the period of instruction to 
about half the usual. That must not happen in this country. Boys can, however, devote 
three or four months of the summer season to production and yet lose little from the 
class room, so little that if matters be well handled the_l«ss in schooling is fully com- 
pensated by the greater experience, the enlarged viewpoint, and the recognition of the 
need for specific preparation for something definite to be accomplished. 

CREDIT IN "SCHOOL COURSES 

There is no good reason why school credit should not be given for this_ work, but 
on the contrary there is every reason why it should be given. It has educational value 
as to content, and the performance of faithful service has a disciplinary value in excess 
of anything which goes with ordinary school work. 

Full credit however should be conditioned upon faithful service, and in order to 
see that such ser\'ice is actually rendered and that the li«y has a fair opportunity to 
render it, the school should send its own representative; that is, the school should ftlUw 
the boy to the field both as a friend and as an inspector. Here is a rare opportunity 
to combine good teaching with real service, thereby securing that adequate motive which 
is so often lacking in our educational effort. 

THE LESSON LEAFLETS 

The Lessons are limited to a few standard operations and deal solely with a-afts- 
manship rather than with the scientific principles underlying agricultural practice. Their 
whole aim is to prepare the boy to be immediately useful to the farmer in a few major 
capacities, to make him teachable, and to insure from the first that the farmer will not 
need to spend valuable time in teaching the boy while his own team stands idle, or other- 
wise suffer more loss than would be made good by the service of the pupil. 

Of necessity these lesson leaflets are confined to subjects either of universal or of 
large sectional application. It is manifestly impossible for such a series to cover every 
minor local agricultural, enterprise — such as pepperrnint growing in restricted districts 
of Michigan and Indiana, or citrus fruit production in California or Florida — and there 
is no alternative but to ask the schools themselves either to prepare or to have prepared 
euch additional lessons as shall make the instruction fit the local conditions. 

It is also impossible to cover adequately in any general series even such regional 
subjects as potato growing for example, first because of profound variation in local 
practices, and second because these lessons should be limited t* these phases of produc- 
tion in which school boys can assist. Manifestly, a series of monographs on the crops of 
the country and the breeds of farm animals would defeat their own purpose. 

Last of all, even in the subjects treated in the Lessons, modification and elaboration 
will be found necessary in order to make that fit with local conditions which is essential 
to success in acquiring skill. For example, in many sections mules are used instead 
of horses and in others left-hand machinery and driving with a single line are still in 
vogue. 

These Farm Craft Lessons therefore must be considered as outlines and suggestions 
rather than as iron-clad courses to be administered without alteration. Nevertheless, 
whatever courses are decided upon should be thoroughly carried out, because these Les- 
sons are designed to be learned, not casually read for entertainment. Besides that, if 
we are to succeed, the Practical exercises must be as faithfully administered as any lab- 
oratory fcourse which the school has ever conducted. It is at this point of fortifying the 
Lesson with the Exercise that Success will be assured, or Failure invited. 

A COURSE OF TRAINING 

This is not a "Course" to be finished, "passed," and forgotten, but rather a line of 
preparation to be pursued, and like the soldier the pupil should continue in his prepara- 
tion until called into service. Some dissatisfaction has been experienced if a "job" were 
Jiot ready and waiting on the very day when the last lesson was finished. 

That would be ideal, of course, but like war this is emergency work. The soldier 
that is called may and does desire to go at onoe to the front. But he is put into a long 
course of training and then more training and even after he is across the water he may 
not be needed at once; so he goes on with his training — always training. 

With the Boys' Working Reserve, as with the soldier, there may be some waits, 
but it is all a kind of insurance scheme in a national emergency and the well-trained 
and right-minded boy may be certain that his services will be needed. 

THE MINIMUM 

As has been indicated, this is not a course of specified length; a definite number 
of lessons of specified character. Obviously many of the suggested lessons will be found 
poorly adapted to certain localities. In the name of education, then, let them be dropped 
or let others be substituted. 

As there is no definite number of "lessons" that must be completed, so there is no 
iron-clad formula for computing the number or the exact nature of the Practical Exer- 



ciscs that should be required. From llic farmer's standpoint the more the l>cUcr only so 
the Lessons and the Exercises tit his conditions. Manifestly, a Nebraska farmer would 
not be much interested in proficiency with an axe and crosscut saw, while it would be a 
very valuable accomplishment in New England. But everybody would have horses to 
be liarnessed and driven. 

From the standpoint of the school there must be a minimum number of lessons and 
a minimum amount of practice to entitle to credit. As the school is free to fix the 
amount and conditions of credit, these amounts and conditions will of course vary greatly, 
but if the training is to be of much use to the farmer, a minimum of fifteen lessons and 
fifteen periods of two hours each, or their equivalent, devoted to practice would be as 
little as is worth considering. Much more, especially of practice work, is in every way 
desirable. 

THE HIGH SCHOOL TO GET THINGS DONE 

The Federal Government cannot supply teachers. There is no alternative but to 
expect the high schools either to provide this teaching from members of their own staffs 
who have the skill, or to secure the instruction from outside sources. Results only are 
important. In general, the schools, being accustomed to the business of instruction, are 
competent to manage the methods necessary to meet this ern«rgency. 

In the neighborhood of every school is plenty of material in the shape of teams, 
wagons, and implements; and in the person of retired farmers, teamsters, implement men, 
and through such special craftsmen as harness makers and sailors, a vast amount of 
skill in handicraft may be enlisted for teaching purposes. It is hoped that the schools 
of the United States will be earnest and untirinfe in the utilization of th« material and 
the men which may be enlisted for this purpose. This servici- must not he perfunctory 
or dispirited. It must be aggressive _ and enthusiastic. It is the teacher's great oppor- 
tunity and duty in lieu of active service at the front. 

A "REASONABLE SERVICE" 

The Government of the United States realizes that it is asking herein a very great 
service on the part of tlie teacher and the high schools. On the other hand, it is obliged 
to employ every organized agency to the best possible advantage, and it appeals with 
special confidence in this matter to the secondary schools supported by public money, 
believing that in this emergency neither time nor funds can be used to better advantage 
than in training this army of jiroduction. Business as usual cannot continue. Nothing 
is as it was. 

WHEN TO BEGIN 

Experience indicates that the time to begin this work is not later than three or four 
months from the opening of the growing season in the region where the school is located. 
After it is begun it should be intensively prosecuted, with no less than one lesson and 
one practice exercise a week, with more if feasible, and with all the speeding up pos- 
sible in the academic work. Experience shows also that when the boy is sufficiently inter- 
ested he can nearly double his effectiveness as a student. 

PLACING 

The business of the school is to do the educational work of enrolling, training for 
farm work, and seeing to it that the conditions agreed upon are met and fulfilled upon 
the farm in order to justify school credit. 

In most cases the school is not the best agency for actually placing the boys, at 
least while war conditions exist. The Council of Defense, if there is one, or some equiva- 
lent public body closely connected with farmers will be found the better agency for the 
purely labor side of the enterprise, although there must be the closest co-operation and 
the most cordial relations between the schools and whatever organization does the placing, 
and accurate records must be kept of location, terms, et cetera. 

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS 

Whatever agency is concerned in administering the Boys' Working Reserve will 
need to guard carefully the following five points. It will need to: 

r. Establish a system of inspection to insure that the boy is faithful and efficient 
and lives up to his contract. 

2. Insure against exploitation of the boy by the farmer in any way whatever, 
although the wage must largely He with the farmer. 

3. Do everything possible to insure mutually desirable social relations between the 
city boy upon the one hand, and the family and the neighborhood upon the other. 

4. Guard against the natural impulse of some farmers to hire a particularly good 
hand away from a neighbor at a sliglit advance, thus demoralizing the Boys' Working 
Kc^crve and doing an injustice to right-minded farmers. 

5. Hold in check as fatal to the purposes of the Boys' Working Reserve the natural 
iinimlse of some boys to "jump" one job for another that promises more pay or "a better 
time." 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



PRACTICE WORK 

The test of good preparation for service on the farm is not the 
learning and reciting of lessons about the various phases of farm 
work ; the real test liesi in doing so far as possible the things that 
the farmer will exjpect to have done in actual work upon the farm. 

Accordingly, the Farm Craft Lessons are intended to be enforced 
and supplemented by practice work, in periods covering not less 
tlian two hours and if possible a half day on Saturday. A list of 
exercises is offered upon which the school may draw so far as it is 
able, and from which it should deviate so far as local conditions 
would seem to make it wise. If half the entire time to be devoted 
to preparation for farm service be given to well-conducted laboratory 
practice of this) kind, it would not be too large a proportion. 

Horse Work : No class of exercises stands in anything like the 
same relation to good farm service as does the horse work. When 
asked what are the things that boys ought to know before going 
to the farm, ,the farmer invariably says that he should know how 
to handle horses, and some add, "If he knows that, I will teach him 
the rest." Because so much of the labor on the farm is done with 
a team, and because good driving is a fine art, it is riot too much if 
half the entire laboratory time be devoted to horses and their 
handling. 

.Size of Classes: Experience shows that for this ki»:d of work 
classes should not be large, and while the size of sections may vary 
considerably, depending upon the particular subject, yet in general 
the number working together at any one time under a single in- 
structor should run from six to twelve. 

Local Assistance; Obviously the schools will be very de- 
pendent upon local materials and upon local help, and unless a man 
can be found who knows, for example, how an axe or a crosscut saw 



should -be handled, it would be better to omit the exercise. The same 
would be true of the pitchfork or the hoe, for pitching hay is not 
"tossing" it, as recorded in rural poetry or in literary skits about 
country life, and hoeing is something besides piling up soil with a 
hoe. 

Similarly, if sailors are to be found, a multitude of knots and 
splices not given in the lessons may be included ; otherwise, it would 
be well not to feature this line but to confine the work to what can 
be thoroughly done. Experience shows that farmers, both active 
and retired, are exceedingly willing to help, as are also teamsters 
and implement dealers. 

Materials : It is upon local sources, too, that schools will need 
to depend very largely for the material with which to work, and it is 
hardly necessary to emphasize the importance ^f exercising care 
in the use of such equipment or of compensating for damage done. 
The same man who would willingly give his time does not care to 
have his equipment injured, nor can he afford it from an operative 
point of view. Because of this fact the school should have a fund 
with which to provide the smaller pieces of equipment and to make 
good any damage to the material loaned. To do this work well 
will require the closest cooperation between the school and the com- 
munity. 

Caution : This list of exercises is not to be taken seriatim and 
pro forma and then left behind like a study that is "passed." Some 
of them, like greasing a wagon for example, may well be done once 
for all, but others like grooming, harnessing, and driving horses, 
should be done over and over again until the movements and the 
"feel" of things become "second nature" to the pupil. This is the 
ideal. It will seldom be attained but every effort should be made 
to approach it, so far at least as horse work is concerned. 

LIST OF EXERCISES 

T. Grooming horses — commonly spoken of as "currying." 
Grooming, however, is the technical term used by all real horsemen ; 
besides, the currycomb is never used below the knee or the hock. 

2. Harnessing, hitching, and unhitching horses, using time con- 
tests to secure precision and speed. 

3. Driving* — utilizing so far as possible the business of local 
teamsters and to some extent the farms and livery stables. 

4. Milking cows. If cows are not available, the strength and 
endurance required of the fingers and the muscles of the forearm in 



the process of milking may be acquired by the exercise of repeatedly 
opening and closing the fingers of both hands with considerable 
force. 

5. Greasing wagons and locating the oiling places in farm 
machinery. To do the latter, trace the movements from the drive 
wheel through the gearing and the bearings. 

6. Taking down and setting up farm machinery. 

7. Repairing farm machinery, securing broken or discarded 
implements from actual farmers. 

8. Running and cleaning the cream separator. 

9. Operating gas engines, and in rare cases tractors. 

10. Using the axe, the crosscut saw, the hand saw, and the 
hammer. 

11. Sharpening tools, -especially scythes, mower knives, hoes, 
and spades. 

12. Using the hoe, the spade, the shovel, and the pitchfork. 

1^. Digging post holes and setting posts, being careful to work 
to a line and to tamp the earth firmly, especially at the bottom of the 
post and at the surface of the ground. 

14. Rope work in tying and splicing. 

15. Running the fanning mill, and cleaning seed, mixing and 
recleaning the same seed if necessary. 

16. Recognizing and separating foul seed from seed store 
samples. 

17. Treating oats and wheat for smut. 

18. Treating potatoes for scab. 

19. Making and applying spraying mixtures. 

COLLECTIONS 

Make as complete a collection of farm tools as possible, calling 
upon implement houses and farmers for gifts, loans, or sales of new 
or used machinery. 

1. Horse-drawn Machinery : Walking plow, sulky plow, disk 
harrow, smoothing harrow, corn planter, grain drill, mower, self- 
binder or header, rear-deliveiy hay rake, side-delivery hay rake, hay 
loader, ensilage cutter. 

2. Hand Tools: Fanning mill, cream separator, 4-, 3-, and 
2-tined pitchforks, manure fork, spading fork, hay rake, garden 
rake, hoe, common spade, tile spade, post hole digger, wheelbarrow, 
scythe and snath, axe, 2- and i-man crosscut saws, beetles, and 
wedges. 

3 



Make as complete collections as possible of : 

1. The grains and other crops grown in the locality, that every- 
body may know what they look like. 

2. The tveeds and insects of the region, with examples of insect 
and fungous injury. 

3. Weed seeds, both indigenous and as cleaned from farm seeds 
in local stores. 



United States Boys' Worldng Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



FOR THOSE WHO HAVE FARM EXPERIENCE 

riiese Lesson Leaflets and these Practical Exercises are not in- 
tended for high school boys who are living upon the farm or for 
others who have had farm experience. For these pupils the schools 
should organize some definite course in agriculture, using for the 
text such a book as Hosier's "Soils and Crops," Rand McNally and 
Company, Water's "Essentials of Agriculture," Ginn and Company, 
or other text suitable for the region. Do not mix these tzvo classes 
of pupils. 

REFERENCE READINGS FOR BOYS WITH EXPERIENCE 

For students with some farm experience, the following books 
will be found useful for occasional reference or for collateral read- 
ing. In addition to providing ich a list it would be well also to 
subscribe for the principal agricultural papers of the section. 

It is not advised that reference readings be assigned to the incx- 
])erienced pupils, but rather that these latter be confined to the field 
of craftsmanship. The school has upon its hands two distinct classes 
of pupils: those with more or less farm experience, and those with 
none — and the two should be handled by radically different methods. 

The public libraries of the country have the books included in the 
list following, and will gladly lend these books to boys who are 
interested in the study of agriculture. 

Af.UONOMY : 

Aljalfa in America: Wing. Sanders. $2.00. Written in popular vein. 
A reliable account of the writer's experience with alfalfa, with much 
valuable information concerning the growing and handling. 520 pp. 111. 

The Corn Crops: Montgomery. Macmillan. $1.60. Discusses produc- 
tion, distribution, botanical relations, physiologj-, environmental re- 
lations, cultural methods and breeding. Sorghums and broom corn are 
also considered. 340 pp. III. 

I 



Diseases of Economic Plants: Stevens and Hall. Macmillan. $2.00. 
Designed for those who wish to recognize and treat plant diseases 
without a long study of their causes. It deals with the prominent 
characters of the most destructive diseases of the United States, 
caused by bacteria and fungi. 510 pp. Ill, 

Weeds of the Farm and Garden: Pammel. Orange Judd. $1.00. A 
general discussion of weeds, their injurious effect, and their uses. 
Methods of propagation are described. Special attention is given to 
contamination of agricultural seeds by weed seeds, including laws for 
protection and general methods of eradication. Botanical descriptions 
and illustrations of important species are given, 300 pp. 111. 

The Story of the Soil: Hopkins. The Gorham Press. $1.00. The funda- 
* mental principles of soil conservation and improvement have been 
woven into fiction in an interesting manner. The narrative contains 
a store-house of valuable information, 5th ed, 360 pp. 111. 

The Farm that Won't Wear Out: Dr, C, G. Hopkins, Author and Pub- 
lisher, Champaign, 111, Paper 15 cents; cloth 30 cents. Full of informa- 
tion of vital importance to American farmers on the subject of soil 
improvement 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture: Hopkins, Ginn, $2.25. An 
authority on the subject of soil improvement. Of inestimable value 
to all who are actually engaged in farming, as w^U as to teachers of 
agriculture. It is especially satisfactory on account of the large amount 
of data upon which the deductions are based. The author carefully 
explains the processes by which the land may be brought to its 
greatest economic productivity. 660 pp. 111. 

The Soil: King. Macmillan. $1.50. A popular book on soils, their origin, 
physical properties and management, for the general reader. 13th 
reprint. 300 pp. 

Farm Mechanics: 

Farm Gas Engines: Hirshfeld and Ulbricht. Macmillan. $1.50. A pop- 
ular discussion, especially good for the farmer who is considering the 
purchase of a gasoline or kerosene engine, 230 pp. 111. 

Animal Husbandry: 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals: Plumb. Ginn. $2.00. A compre- 
hensive book on the history of breeds. Discusses their characteristics 
and adaptabilities. 560 pp. 111, 

Beef Production: Herbert W, Mum ford. Author and Publisher, Urbana, 
Illinois. $1,50, The feeding and breeding of beef cattle for market 
is presented clearly and concisely from the feeder's standpoint. Author- 
itative and accurate. Its teachings will materially aid in making cattle 
feeding profitable. 200 pp. 111. 

The Horse: Roberts. Macmillan. $1.25. All breeds and grades are dis- 
cussed. It tells how to breed, train, feed, and care for them. 400 pp. 
111. 



Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture: Robinson. Ginn. $2.00. Index 
and full poultry bibliography. Thoroughly reliable, up-to-date and 
adapted to farmers' use. 590 pp. 111. 

Productive Sheep Husbandry: Coflfey. Lippincott. $2.50. A compre- 
hensive text covering flock management, sheep and lamb feeding, and 
buildings and equipment required for sheep. The leading breeds are 
discussed and instructions given for the judging of sheep. 480 pp. 
262 111. 

Forty Years' Experience of a Practical Hog Man: . Lovejoy. Frost. $1.25. 
Discusses all phases of the business, including shows and sales, adver- 
tising, shipping, meat curing, and buildings. 170 pp. 111. 

Domesticated Animals and Plants: Davenport. Ginn. $1.25. Discusses 
the origin and development of domestic animals and plants with special 
methods of improvement. Interesting to any family. 320 pp. 111. 

Feeds and Feeding: Henry and Morrison. Henry. $2.25. Contains elab- 
orate and up-to-date tables giving the average composition of Ameri- 
can feeding stuffs, their digestible nutrients and fertilizing constitu- 
ents, feeding standards for farm animals and a glossary of scientific 
terms. An excellent index and system of cross references greatly 
enhances its value and convenience. 1915. 15th ed. entirely rewritten. 
700 pp. 

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production: Eckles. Macmillan. $1.60. Describes 
the breeds and their qualifications, milk production and care, from 
farmers' and city standpoint; milk houses and calf raising. 340 pp. 111. 

Clean Milk: Belcher, Orange Judd. $1.00. Location and construction 
of barns; manure; keeping cows clean; milking; bottling. 140 pp. 111. 

Milk and Its Products: Wing. Macmillan. $1.50. Discusses the secre- 
tion, composition, and testing of milk; separation of cream; butter, 
cheese, and ice cream making. I4lh ed. Entirely rewritten. 3T0 pp. 

Horticulture : 

The Principles of .Fruit Growing: Bailey. Macmillan. $1.50. Discusses 
principles underlying fruit growing practice, including protection from 
frost, disease, and other dangers. 510 pp. 

The Nursery Book: Bailey. Macmillan. $1.50. Complete guide to the 
cultivation and propagation of plants with methods employed in nur- 
sery practice. 

Design in Landscape Gardening: Root and Kelly. Century. $2.00. 
Invaluable for student or amateur. Gives simple basic principles for 
ornamenting home grounds. 1914. 270 pp. 111. 

Productive Vegetable Growing: Lloyd. Lippincott. $1.50. The cultural 
requirements are fully analyzed, and the underlying principles pre- 
sented clearly and concisely. 1914. 320 pp. 111. 

Insects and Birds: 

Insect Pests of Farm, Garden, and Orchard: Sanderson. Wiley and 
Sons. $3.00. The best comprehensive work on economic entomology. 
690 pp. 111. 



Miscellaneous : 

A Year in Agriculture: Nolan. Row, Peterson and Company. A good 
text and reference book with home project.s. 386 pp. Illus. 

Adventures in Contentment : Grayson. Doubleday. $1.25. Excellent 
narrative essays showing liow Grayson found contentment in everj' turn 
of country life. 300 pp. 111. 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 1 
MAKING THE VICTORY GOOD 

A year ago our slogan was, Win the War or All the World Will 
Work for Gennany. Now our job is to Make the Victory Good. 

It is not enough to have defended ourselves against a blood- 
thirsty, treacherous, and powerful enemy. It is not enough to have 
defeated him and driven him off the territory he has made desolate. 
It is impossible to bring back to life and happiness the victims of his 
atrocities, but we can feed and clothe the millions he has made desti- 
tute, and we can work with our Allies in establishing law, order, and 
liberty upon the earth. This now is the great task of America in 
making the victory good. 

Recon.structign : This labor of reconstructing an exhausted and 
bleeding world is the inevitable burden of the Allies and it will tax 
their wisdom and their energies to the utmost. Mere cessation of 
hostilities means that the gigantic task is but well begun, for over half 
the world is to-day zvithoiit a Stable govermnent, and millions of 
men, women, and children from the occupied territory are without 
food, clothing, or shelter except as supplied by the Allies; and other 
millions zvill be added with the crimibling of the Central Poivers. 
Our burdens in this respect are increased rather than diminished by 
victory. 

Source of Food : Much of this food must come from America. 
Some of it can of course be brought from other countries, but the 
world ivas consuming all that zvas produced before the war. Since 
then, thousands have been drawn off the land and out Of production, 
and the best parts of Europe have been given over to desolation, 
producing nothing. (The Germans even cut down the fruit trees of 
France.) Many thousands of soldiers and of civilians, both men, 
women, and children, have been killed, and other millions have al- 
ready starved or have been deliberately starved to death. (Padc- 
rewski says there are no children left in Poland under seven years 
of age.) 



And yet the number that have clied or been killed is far less in 
proportion than the country that has been devastated or otherwise 
left uncultivated. There is no question that as a whole the world was 
never so near famine as it is to-day, with no prospects for relief un- 
til after another season and then only through the few countries that 
have a stable government. 

Much Labor Needed: The cessation of actual fighting means 
of course the stoppage of production in munitions of war, and our 
problems of transportation will be simplified, but there are many 
things that have been put aside "until after the war is over" that must 
be given attention at the earliest possible moment. Next to food, 
clothing, and shelter, labor will be the most precious and needful 
commodity for some years to come, partly because the limiting ele- 
ment in food production now is not land but labor. 

Farm Help Needed: The need of the farmer for help is even 
greater than a year ago if we are not going to let these millions 
starve. It will be many months yet before the soldiers that have been 
taken from the land can be back again, and the best substitute for 
this skilled labor is to be found in the high school boys of the United 
States. 

THE BOYS' WORKING RESERVE 

Realizing all the conditions that are upon us, together with the 
ability and the anxiety of the high school boy to help his country 
fight its battles, meet its duties, and discharge its obligations, the 
Government of the United States has organized the Boys' Working 
Reserve, a voluntary organization of young men between the ages of 
sixteen and twenty-one, pledged to do what they can in production as 
the soldiers do in battle. 

Farm Labor: Those boys who have definitely left school can 
best help in the shops, because the shop runs continually. On the 
other hand it so happens that the busy time on the farm is during the 
growing season and this is almost the same as the vacation time for 
the schools. For this reason a boy can work on the farm two, three, 
or even four months during the busiest season, with but little inter- 
ruption to his schooling and probably with no detriment to his edu- 
cation, for if while in school he will '"hump himself" as the soldier 
does, he will make up for the time lost and have his experience and 
a little money as "clear gain." 

The Object : The great need for this farm work is not to help 
the fanner (or the boy) make more money, but to help the land raise 
more food. In doing this, however, both the farmer and the boy 

2 



must use methods that will "pay," or the attempt to increase produc- 
tion will swamp the farmer. The best possible plans and workman- 
ship will therefore be needed. The farmer will provide the plans ; 
the business of the boy is to perform his share of the labor in a work- 
manlike manner. 

THE LESSONS 

Accordingly the Government has caused to be prepared, and the 
high schools will teach, a few lessons and a considerable number of 
exercises that deal with the things a farmer would like the boy to 
know and be able to do when he comes to the farm to help in food 
production. 

WILL IT "PAY?" 

But cannot the boy make more money by going into manufactur- 
ing plants or other enterprises which offer exceedingly high wages? 
Certainly he can, and so could the soldier, but when our country was 
fighting for its life. It was not a question of making money but of 
defeating the enemy and making him powerless to threaten us again. 
It is so now with the high school boy and with the business of pro- 
ducing the food which will help to avert famine from a stricken 
world. Of course people who are very poor must work where they 
can earn the most money. All others should work where they can 
do the most good. 

WHY THE FARMER PAYS LOW WAGES 

There are three reasons why you cannot get as much money on 
the farm as in a factory : 

1. Most manufactured articles are more or less of the nature of 
luxuries ; that is, we can live without them. Being of such nature, 
they go mostly to the well-to-do people at good prices, and wages can 
be high. Food, on the other hand, is an absolute necessity for every 
person every day, and for this reason the price must be kept as low 
as possible. If the farmer should pay as high wages as do the fac- 
tories, the very poor would be unable to buy food. 

2. It takes a "green hand" longer to learn farming than to learn 
to tend a machine in a factory. He is therefore longer in really 
becoming useful — yet he eats just the same. 

3. Wages on the farm generally include board and lodging, and 
as about half the employe's earnings go for food and shelter, wages 
in the country cannot be compared directly with those in the city. 

3 



Your going to the farm may be a financial sacrifice, but it is the 
"reasonable service" of those fortunate enough to be in school at a 
time like this. Do not think of yourselves as "boys" any longer. 
You must do men's work now. The United States Government is 
calling upon every able-bodied boy in the high school to join the 
Boys' Working Reserve and to do his bit upon the farm just as the 
soldiers have done theirs at the front. How good a job will you do? 
The school and the Farm Craft Lessons will do what they can to 
help you. 



i 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 2 
WHEN THE CITY BOY GOES TO THE FARM 

TO THE CITY BOY 

The farmers are short of labor and they must have help if they 
are to increase production. What they need is skilled labor, and 
yet the able-bodied, right-minded city boy, above fourteen or fifteen 
years of. age*, can make himself very useful, provided he trains 
himself for the purpose. Whether he fights or whether he works, 
the same clear-cut object must be kept constantly in view, and the 
same iron discipline must be maintained. The boy on the farm must 
be his own disciplinarian and keep himself in training, not only 
physically but in every way if he is to be an efficient aid in food 
production. 

Objects : When the city boy goes to the farm to help feed the 
world, he must keep three distinct purposes always before him: 

1. To serve his country by doing his bit in production and in 
the prevention of waste, whether of food, animals, crops, or ma- 
chinery. 

2. To serve the interests of his employer by caring for his 
property and working to the best advantage possible. 

3. To gain experience, to the end that he may be worth more 
every year both to the country and to himself. 

These three objects should be always in mind and in the order 
named. This is duty and with the true soldier no task in the line 
of duty is too difficult. 

Methods : This boy must also have a Plan, and this Plan must 
include definite methods of going about the new undertaking. There 
IS both an art and a science in farming. The art means the "what" 
and the "how" of things and this comes first. The science means 



* Only boys sixteen years old and over can belong to the United States 
Boys' Working Reserve, but others can help to raise food. In some States, 
as in Illinois, there has been organized a Junior Boys' Working Reserve. 



the "why" and that comes later with observation, reading, and study. 
This is the way to go about the job: 

1. Learn the materials and the equipment of the farm — its 
animals, its crops, its machinery. Learn their names and the names 
of their various parts. Learn the language of the farm. Learn to 
know timothy from clover; learn to know a swath from a hay 
cock. Learn to know the hock of a horse, the king bolt of a wagon, 
the breeching of a harness. 

2. Learn how to care for the equipment of the farm. If not 
properly cared for and kept in repair, this equipment will not do the 
work well and, besides, it may break down just when it is most 
needed in a busy time. More horses are ruined by lack of care than 
are worn out in work. 

3. Leani how properly to use the equipment of the farm. In 
no other way can it do its work efficiently or economically. Lhis 
equipment costs money, and with neglect and improper use it rapidly 
goes to pieces causing unnecessary loss to the farmer and an increase 
in the cost of food. 

• 4. Learn the common processes of the farm — the morning and 
evening chores; feeding and care of horses, cattle, and pigs; care of 
the harness; plowing, disking, making the seed bed, sowing, planting, 
cultivating — the thousand-and-one things that all need to be done 
and well done each time, not simply "turned off." Most farm work 
is skilled labor. In a shop the workman does but a few things, re- 
l>eating them day after day; on the farm he does many things — 
some of them every day, others but a few times a year, but all' 
should be done in the b^st possible way. 

5. Gain skill first, and afterwards speed. The highly skilled 
workman makes all his movements with rapidity and precision. To 
become a good workman learn first to do a thing well, afterwards 
to do it rapidly. The one who begins with speed will never become 
a skilled workman. 

6. Acquire a high degree of physical endurance. It is not the 
one who rushes into a job or the one who makes the largest number 
of motions for a few minutes that accomplishes the most. The day is 
long, and the work is severe. Moderate speed, precision of move- 
ment, and endurance that lasts to the end of the day and the next 
and the next — that is what gets tilings done. 

7. Learn a new thing every day. Let no day on the farm go by 
without learning to do some new thing or a better way of doing 
an old one, or getting a new idea about farming. 

2 



8. Observe closely. Ask questions. Read books and papers 
about farming. So shall you perfect your art, and so shall you by 
and by begin to know the reasons for things, and that is the science 
of farming. 

Precautions. — Certain precautions need to be always in mind: 

1. Don't get "cocky" when you have learned a few things. 
The road to becoming a good farmer is a long one, and there is 
nearly always a better way than the one you have learned. 

2. Guard against abuse of, or damage to, the animals, machinery, 
or other equipment of the farm. Mistreatment of any kind will 
mean loss to your employer. It is an evidence of your own lack of 
knowledge or of care, possibly both; besides, it defeats by that much 
the objects you intend to achieve. 

3. Do all in your power by forethought and hard work to 
prevent losses to your employer, whether of equipment or of crops. 
Preventing loss and avoiding waste are even more, important than 
production itself. Why? 

, Keep things "picked up" ; know where things belong. After 
using a hoe or other tool, clean it and put it back in its place. Keep 
doors and gates shut, and do not expect others to pick up after you, 
to do your work, or to inquire whether you have fed the pigs. 

4. Do what you can to win the confidence of your employer, 
not only as to your intention but also as to your ability to do things. 

Your faithfulness aiid efficiency, must not depend upon your 
wages. Whatever your pay, you owe it to everybody, yourself 
included, to do your best. No man can expect to be paid large wages 
until he has- first shown his ability and willingness to earn more than 
he was paid for doing. 

5. Accept responsibility, and, having accepted it, do not break 
down. Certainly do not avoid responsibility; on the contrary, be 
quick to see obligations about to arise and get ready to meet them. 
The most common failing is unwillingness to accept and carry 
responsibility, and the next common failing is inability through 
previous thoughtlessness. 

6. Be clean, physically, morally, and mentally. Only clean men 
can carry heavy responsibilities without breaking down. Leave 
your bad habits behind. Don't swear and you had better not smoke. 

7. Be considerate of all the courtesies due your employer, not 
only in a business way upon the farm, but in a social way while in his 
house as a member of his family. Do not track in mud. Do not 
talk too much. You owe it to yourself as well as to the household 
and the community to be always a gentleman. So shall you not 

3 



only "get on" with your employer and his family, but you will be 
respected and all the objects you sought will be attained. 

8. Be a real member of the community you enter. Don't look 
down upon nor up to others of your own age, but be a good fellow 
in the best sense of the term. So shall you avoid being either a prig 
or a dub. 

9. Keep a diary of your experience and as opportunity offers 
report to your school on what you have learned while in the volun- 
tary service of your country on the farm. 

10. When you return to the city ask your employer for a letter 
saying whether he has found you capable, faithful, and a gentle- 
man. With this report you will be the more certain to receive credit 
in your school work and, if you have fulfilled the requirements of 
the Reserve, the recognition of the Government in the form of the 
United States Boys' Reserve Bronze Medal. 

TO THE FARM BOY 

When the city boy comes to the farm, much will depend upon 
the way in which you receive him. He has come to help but he 
doesn't know exactly how. It is certain that he desires to be useful 
or he would not have come, for he could have made more money in 
the shops than he can make upon the farm. He doesn't know much 
about farm work because he has never had opportunity to learn. 
Be his big brother now and teach him all you can, remembering how 
you would feel if you were trying to learn some city job. 

"But he is different !" Just so, and that is one of the good things 
about it all. You are both "different" and therefore good for each 
other. Warm up to him : first, because he is on strange ground and 
therefo«re your guest ; second, because you need each other. He has 
had some practice in knowing boys and you will probably find him 
a good fellow even if he is different. You will both be different 
after you have been friends awhile and worked at the new job 
together. 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 3 

CRAFTSMANSHIP 

Farming Difficult : Farming is a complicated industry and 
M'lioever touches it at any point must know something about it or 
he will do more harm than good, either to himself, to others, or to 
both. • 

How Studied: Farming may be studied from any one of four 
different standpoints : 

1. The scientific principles involved. 

2. The economics of the business' — costs and income, or profit 

and loss. 

3. The equipment — land, buildings, animals, and machinery. 

4. Craftsmanship, or the processes involved, commonly called 

farm work. 

Where to Begin : The farmer must study his business from 
all four angles, but the helper must begin with craftsmanship and go 
on up the scale as he gains experience. Though the good workman 
will become interested at once in the equipment of the farm, though 
he will have his eye open always to the question of profit and loss, 
and though he will become fascinated in his desire to know and to 
understand the principles according to which he must work, yet, if 
his labor is to be effective, the only road to good farming is through 
skill in performing the ordinary operations of the farm. 

However much he may become interested in these other matters, 
the chief question in the helper's mind for a long time must be the 
"knack" of getting things done. Hoiv to develop skill in crafts- 
manship is his constant query. Not only is this true of the helper, 
but the experienced farmer all his life is looking for "a better way." 

Factory and Farm : When a new man goes into the factory 
he is shown how to do a single piece of work and he does the same 



thing day after day, soon becoming exceedingly skillful. On the 
farm he may do a half dozen different kinds of work in a single day 
and some of these he may not be called upon to do a dozen times 
in the entire summer. It is much more difficult, therefore, to become 
a good craftsman on the farm than in the factory. 

The problem is complicated in another way. In the factory many 
men are gathered together in the same room imder a foreman. On 
the farm the work is scattered and the helper must work inde- 
pendently, because if the farmer must follow him everywhere to 
show him how, he would better- do the work himself. To acquire 
real skill in craftsmanship, therefore, is the first gre^t duty of the 
helper who would really help. 

What Craftsmanship Is: Craft means skill or ingenuity in 
doing things with the hands. It means precision in movements. It 
means strength with dexterity. It means rapidity without hurry. 
It means accuracy without lost motion. It means resourcefulness 
in adapting methods and movements to the thousand-and-one new 
situations that constantly arise when dealing with machinery and 
with animals. 

Brain Work : It used to be assumed that the hand had so little 
connection with the brain that craftsmanship was independent of 
intelligence, but now we know that good workmanship never becomes 
automatic. Instead the highest craftsmanship requires constant 
supervision of the brain. The vision of what the man is to accom- 
plish must first exist in the mind, just as the sculptor "sees" Hhe 
finished statue even before he begins to chip away the marble. 

Educative Value of Craftsmanship: Work with the hand is 
now recognized as highly educative in three exceedingly important 
particulars : 

1. For teaching precision and accuracy, in which nothing 
equals the work of the hands. 

2. For teaching speed and what may be called general efficiency, 
or the adjusting of means to the end desired. 

3. For gaining experience in bringing success out of failure, 
because in manual operations tlie principle of "try, try again" till 
success comes can be more quickly and more cheaply applied than 
in any other line. A boy would better experiment upon a box than 
upon himself. It takes but a few minutes to find a mistake in mak- 
ing a box ; it may take years to prove that a plan of life is wrong. 

2 



Advantages of Good Craftsmanship: Quite aside from the 
educative influence upon the individual, there are six advantages 
that result from good workmanship as compared with poor: 

1. The work is more interesting than when the craftsmanship is 
careless. 

2. The work is actually more easily performed. 

3. A greater amount is accomplished in the same length of 
time and with the same expenditure of energy. 

4. Mistakes' are fewer, and breakage, together with waste of 
every kind, is reduced. 

5.' The worker gains in producing power every day, and there- 
fore hi the value of his labor to his employer and to the world. 

6. In the end the man himself is improved and developed 
through good craftsmanship, just as he is injured and ultimately 
destroyed by careless workmanship. 

How TO Become a Good Craftsman : To become a good 
craftsman, six rules must be observed: 

1. You must really desire to be a superior workman. 

2. Construct in your mind an accurate picture of what is to 
be accomplished — the transfer of hay from the ground to the wagon, 
the welfare of the plant in cultivation, the work which the horse can 
j>erform, what the machine is designed to do. 

3. Learn accuracy of performance, or the exact way to do the 
job. 

4. Learn speed through unceasing precision of movement and 
cutting out all "false motions" that do not get ahead. Acquire the 
most direct and convenient methods of getting results, then practice, 
practice, practice. 

5. Keep the eyes open always for "a better way" of doing a 
standard piece of work. You may learn it suddenly some day from 
an unexpected quarter. 

6. Develop endurance as well as accuracy and speed. The 
workman who soon "gives out" will acoomplish but little. The 
good workman is "tireless" as well as skillful. Thjs does not mean 
that you should never get tired — you will be "dog tired" if you do 
your duty — but it does mean that you should not become exhausted 
with the day's work. Try to master your job, that is, to be a master 
workman. 

The Hand: Next to the brain, the hand is the most wonderful 
part of the body. Man is about the only animal that has a hand good 

3 



for much, and this, next to speech and brain power constitutes his 
chief advantage over the animals. What could the horse or the dog 
accomplish with good hands ! What could we do without them ? 
It was a great thing when man first learned to walk on his two feet, 
leaving his hands for work ! Yet how many men and women have 
left the hand untrained. It is our best servant; learn to use it, and 
in using it make it obey and do always a good job. 

Care of the Body : The body is not only the house in which 
you live, it is also the machine with which you think and work. As m 
the good workman always takes the best care of his tools, so should 
you take the very best possible care of the body. You will frequently 
get wet on the farm, and sometimes heated, but neither will injure 
the body that is well cared for. 



i 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 4 

THE HORSE 

Value of the Horse: Oldest of all domesticated species ex- 
cept the dog, the horse is by far the most useful as he is the noblest 
of the animals. Under the saddle he carries the rider or the pack 
upon his back. In harness he draws the carriage for pleasure, or he 
hauls the wagon, the plow, the harrow, the cultivator, and the reaper 
as matters of business. Without the horse, modern American farm- 
ing \yould be impossible. To make the most of his services, the 
best of horsemanship must be employed. 

Prerequisites of a Good Horseman : Before one can be a 
good horseman, he must: 

1. Understand the nature of the horse. 

2. Know the methods employed by the best horsemen, both in 
the handling and in the care of horses. 

3. Get practice, practice, and yet more practice. 

4. Have always, as a driver, a clear comprehension of precisely 
what the horse is expected to do before attempting to set him to 
work. 

5. Be able to convey to the horse exact information as to what 
is expected of him, and do it in ways that will encourage and stimu- 
late, not frighten or confuse him. 

6. Like horses so well that if they were human beings they 
would be his intimate friends. 

Nature of the Horse: While horses, like people, vary greatly 
in their individual dispositions, yet in general it may be said that 
the following are outstanding characteristics of the horse: 

I. Timidity: Wild or domesticated horses are timid and there- 
fore inclined to run away from strange objects or frightful sounds, 
and even from things familiar if suddenly and unexpectedly encoun- 
tered. Hence, never punish a horse except for definite disobedience, 
and then he certain that he knows exactly ivhat it is that he has done 
wrong. He will accept this kind of punishment like a gentleman 
'and profit by it, but a good horse will either resent abuse and fight, 
or he will be made so unreliable as to be dangerous. 

The horse is especially "skittish" about what comes up from 
behind. For this reason a good horseman always "keeps an eye 



to the rear" in driving aad speaks before touching a horse, espe- 
cially when he is in the stable. 

The horse may easily frighten himself. For example, a slight 
"start" when he is hitched to something which rattles when it moves, 
is likely to be converted into a first-class runaway. Therefore, if 
there is danger that a horse will become frightened, keep him mov- 
ing, but do not let him trot if it can be helped. Whatever happens, 
the driver must keep his head. 

It is the driver's business to discover any fearsome object before 
the horse discovers it. If he refuses to go' up to it or pass it, by no 
means should he be whipped. If given time to study it out, with 
an encouraging word from the driver, he will, in nine cases out of 
ten, proceed upon his way. 

2. Curiosity: Curiosity is a highly developed faculty of the 
horse, and if left to himself he will ordinarily return to examine 
the object that has frightened him. Hence it is useless to follow 
a colt that is shying away from you — he will return presently to 
look you over. However, never strike a horse with a halter when 
you turn him into the pasture, even in a spirit of play, for you will 
have trouble in getting him again when you want him. 

J. Pride: Of all his characteristics, none is more prominent 
than pride. While some horses are indifferent, others are as proud 
as Lucifer, and most good horses work best in good harness well 
fitted. Some of them behave decidedly better when hitched to a 
good turnout than when asked to haul a dilapidated and rattling 
piece of machinery. 

4. IVorkmanship : The good horse well trained is a good work- 
man. That is to say, he likes to do the things that he has learned. 
In most teams one or the other takes the lead. It is only the horse 
inferior in intellect or abused in treatment that takes no interest in 
his work. Furthermore, it is the horse which is most interested in 
his work that will last the longest and accomplish the most. The 
experienced farm horse knows how to do most kinds of work -and 
is an exceedingly good judge of his driver. It is good pohcy to 
stand well in his esteem. 

5. Dependence: The horse is naturally dependent upon his 
driver, and this is the driver's chief advantage over him. No man, 
can master a horse except by winning his confidence. A good horse 
well trained depends upon man's superior intelligence, and such a 
horse will no more "run away" than will a dog leave his master. 
Good horsemen frequently take advantage of this trait in training 
green colts and purposely get them into predicaments from which 
they cannot extricate themselves, as, for example, allowing them 
to become entangled in the harness. Once having been relieved 
from such a difficulty, the horse quickly comes to depend at all 
times upon his driver. 

6. Memory: The horse has an excellent memory and seldom 
forgets what he has learned, bad as well as good. Be careful, there- 
fore, what you teach him. 



/. Temper: A few horses are vicious and some are insane. 
The vicious horse is Hkely to kick, to bite, or to strike with the front 
feet. Of these three habits the last is the most dangerous. Ahiiost 
any horse is hkely to kick if something touches him from behind 
without warning. Therefore always speak to a horse before touch- 
ing him. Some horses have been ruined by ill treatment and a few 
are intolerably stupid, but these are extremes and most cases of 
the kind have been produced by bad management. 

Le.\rning the Methods of Good Horsemen : These can be 
learned only by wide observation and long experience, keeping the 
eyes always open to the customs of good horsemen — what they 
do and what they do not do. For example: If you have 
occasion to quiet a horse, pat him upon the shoulder or the neck, 
not upon the nose. He resents the latter just as you would. If 
he is afraid to pass an object, walk beside him, but never lead him 
by the bit. A good horseman never drops his lines until he is ready 
to unhitch. 

Practice: Wide observation and much study are required for 
good horsemanship, but even so practice is absolutely necessary in 
order to acquire the "feel" of the lines, the feeling of assurance that 
goes with good driving, and the ability to inspire confidence on the 
part of the horse, without which the best results are impossible. 

Knowing in Advance What Is to Be Done: Many unskilled 
horsemen strike the horse with the whip or the lines before telling 
him to start. Now the horse is entitled to know what he is expected 
to do. Before giving orders, therefore, be assured that you your- 
self know exactly what is to be done, how you are going to do it, 
and the part which the horse is expected to perform. 

Communicating with the Horse: Good horsemen do not 
yell at horses nor do they continually tap with the whip or the lines. 
The one will confuse and possibly frighten ; the other will breed 
laziness. A few words of command are necessary, but for the most 
part horses arc driven zmth the lines.' Continual talking will make 
them careless of what is said. They do not understand a general 
conversation, and they grow heedless of continuous and harmless 
clatter of any kind. Around horses, therefore, keep silent or speak 
to good purpose ; and when you speak, do it distinctly and in a tone 
of quiet assurance, as if obedience were to be taken for granted 
without being enforced. 

Attitude Toward Horses: No man can be a good horseman 
who dislikes horses, or who believes that "every horse should know 
his master." It is imperative for good horsemanship that the ani- 
mal should have confidence in and place absolute reliance upon his 
human companion as a very superior creature. Never deceive a 
horse except to encourage him in the belief that no harm can come 
his way while you are there. This laudable deception is the key to 
good horsemanship. 



Whoever is to handle horses should familiarize himself with 
the names and the location of the different parts of the body. This 
work can be done by study of the following chart, and it should be 
completed with the live animal at the first opportunity for practice 
work. 




I. 


Mouth 


II. 


Windpipe 


21. 


Fetlock joint 


31. 


Hip 


2. 


Nostril 


13. 


Crest 


22. 


Pastern 


32. 


Croup 


3- 


Chin 


13- 


Withers 


23. 


Foot 


33- 


Tail 


4. 


Nose 


14. 


Shoulder 


24. 


Fore flank 


34. 


Buttocks 


s. 


Face 


IS. 


Breast 


25- 


Heart girth 


35- 


Quarters 


6. 


Forehead 


16. 


Arm 


26. 


Coupling 


36. 


Thigh 


7. 


Eye 


17- 


Elbow 


27. 


Back 


37. 


Stifle 


8. 


Ear 


t8. 


Forearm 


28. 


Loin 


38. 


Gaskin 


9- 


Lower jaw 


19. 


Knee 


29. 


Rear flank 


39- 


Hock 


10. 


Throatlatch 


20. 


Cannon 


30- 


Belly 







The left side of the horse is the "near" side; the right side is the "off" side. 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 5 
GROOMING AND CARE OF THE FARM HORSE 

The first step in learning the handling of horses is grooming, 
commonly but erroneously called "currying." As it must be done 
every day, it is important to know how this work should be per- 
formed in the very best way and with the least consumption of time 
and labor. 

Object : While good grooming improves the coat of the horse 
and adds to his appearance, the main reason for doing it carefully 
and regularly is to assist in keeping the skin and coat healthy. 
Keeping clean those parts upon which the collar and other portions 
of the harness bear, aids in preventing them from becoming "galled," 
that is, irritated and sore. 

Tools: The ordinary grooming tools are: currycomb ("hu- 
mane," or "reform," type preferred), dandy brush, rub rag, and 
hoof pick. The card is sometimes used but it is a crude tool ; and 
the sweat scraper, while used with race horses, is but rarely found 
upon the farm. 

1. The currycomb is used to loosen up dirt which has "caked" 
upon the coat. This should be the first step in grooming. The 
movement employed by the hand and arm in the use of this tool 
should be circular and the pressure only enough to get results and 
not enough to irritate the skin. Keep the currycomb off the head, 
and do not use it on the knees, hocks, or the parts below. 

2. The dandy brush: When particular attention is given to 
grooming and an extra glossy coat is desired, a good body brush 
of bristles will be needed. With farm horses, however, the work 
can be well done, and much more speedily, with the dandy brush. 
This brush should be vigorously applied in the direction in which the 
hair lies. The groom should stand far enough away from the horse 
to enable the use of considerable pressure in his strokes. Starting 



in at the head, he should proceed over the whole body, remembering 
to brush thoroughly all parts of the legs, particularly under the fet- 
locks. Muddy legs should not be washed, but the mud should be 
allowed to dry and then be thoroughly removed with the brush. 
Manes and tails should be faithfully brushed out because, when 
neglected, the skin from which the long hair grows becomes itcliy, 
and this leads to rubbing. Neither the card nor the currycomb 
should be used on manes and tails because too nmch hair would be 
broken off. Brushes may be cleaned by occasionally passing them 
over the currycomb and knocking the dust out of the comb against 
the side of the partition. 

3. 'The rub rag: A linen salt sack is the best — it should be usc<! 
in finishing in order to remove the surface dust. The rub rag is 
also used after the szvMt scraper, which in some cases — although 
not as a rule with fanu work horses — is employed to dry horses 
which are brought in hot and wet with sweat. 

4. The hoof pick: At the time the horse is groomed, it is a 
wise plan to pick out the feet, that is, clean out the sand, gravel, and 
dirt that have collected under the frog and in the walls of the hoof. 
At this time also the condition of the hoof and the shoe should be 
noted. Unshod horses should have their feet leveled and the outer 
wall rounded ofi with a hoof rasp at least once a month. Rounding 
the outer wall tends to prevent its chipping off. 

When to Groom: Although seldom practiced, the best time to 
clean the horse is in the evening after he has cooled out from his 
day's work. When this is the rule, a light grooming in the morning 
is all that is necessary. The work should be done well but with 
speed, for time will not permit more than the doing of bare essen- 
tials. There are a number of practices of the experienced groom 
which have to be omitted on the farm for lack of time. 

Blanketing: Blankets are used, for the most part, on farm 
horses that have to stand exposed to the winter elements while 
waiting for their loads or drivers. It is a wise precaution, during 
the winter season, to blanket horses that come into the stable very 
hot. Putting a big handful of straw over the loin and under the 
blanket aids in cooling out. The doors and windows in the horse 
barn should be so arranged as to prevent drafts. 

Care of the Shoulders: The most vulnerable part of a work 
horse is his shoulder. If the collar is too small it may choke him; 
if it is too large, which is more often the case, it will bear so 

2 



heavily on the point of the shoulder as to wear off the skin; and 
if it is lumpy, which is still more frequently the case, the shoulder 
is almost certain to become "galled", that is, hard bunches are raised 
upon which the skin will sooner or later break, leaving a sore. 

Quite aside from all questions of cruelty, no horse can work well 
with a sore shoulder against which a collar is constantly pressing 
with more or less of a seesawing motion, the natural result of walk- 
ing. A shoulder once made sore is exceedingly difficult to heal, and 
every good horseman prides himself upon never allowing such a 
condition to develop. 

The collar is never too hard, but the driver should see that it 
fits like a good shoe, and even then he must give constant attention 
to the shoulder. The mane frequently works under the collar and 
irritates the skin, softened by the perspiration. The driver should 
be careful that this lock of mane is not allowed to remain under 
the collar while at work, and to prevent it very frequent attention 
is necessary. 

Then, too, in the spring of the year when the horses are soft 
and the skin perhaps none too clean after a winter of "roughing 
through," the shoulder sweats profusely and a sticky gummy secre- 
tion is freely thrown out. If this is left all day without attention 
the shoulder will become "scalded" and with continued neglect ex- 
tremely sore, even to the point of making the horse unfit for work. 
What the driver should do is to lift the collar from the neck at 
least once an hour in the early season — the neck becomes toughened 
later on — and wipe the shoulder and the collar with the hand or 
better with a cloth carried for the purpose. A little later all that 
will be necessary is to occasionally lift the collar off the neck to let 
the shoulder cool and dry. 

Care of the Collar: A bad driver pays no attention to the 
collar until he is ready to put it on in the morning. He will prob- 
ably then "scrape the gum off" with a pocket knife or an old file, 
and hammer the collar a little with a stick "to soften it." 

The good teamster cleans the collar as soon as he reviioves it 
from the neck in the evening and while the gum is ivarm and soft, 
using a cloth or a wet sponge with a little soap. He never does 
anything to roughen the surface of the collar where it bears upon 
the shoulder of the horse. No collar is too hard if only it is smooth; 
indeed, collars have been made of steel. 



I 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 6 
HARNESSING AND HITCHING UP FARM HORSES 

There are many different styles of work harness and good team- 
sters vary somewhat in their methods of doing similar things, yet 
all agree with the old saying, "A team well harnessed and pni to- 
gether is half driven." 

General Statement : The universal custom is that all harness 
is put on and taken off from the left, or near, side. The novice will 




I. 

2. 

3- 

4- 
5- 
f). 


Bit 

Nose band 

Cheeks 

Blinds 

Face drop 

Brow band 


7- 
S. 
0. 

10. 


Crown 
Throat latcli 
Check rein 
Top hamc strap 



HEAVY WORK HAR.XF.SS 

11. Housing 

12. Hame line rings 

13. Collar 

14. Hames 

1 5. Bottom hame strap 

)6. Breast strap 

17. Collar strap 

18. Martingale 
iq. Pad 

20. Traces 



21. Girth billet 

22. Girth 

23. Breeching straps 

24. Lines or reins 

25. Back strap 

26. Breeching 

27. Trace carrier 

28. Crupper 
20 rufkevr 



I 



commend himself, therefore, at once if he knows which sitle of the 
horse to approach for harnessing and unharnessing, just as he will 
discredit himself by going up to the right-hand side. 

Parts of the Harness : The first step is to learn the parts of 
the harness as shown in Fig. i. 

HARNESSING THE HORSE TO BE DRIVEN SINGLY 

We shall assume that the horse is in his stall, groomed and ready 
to be harnessed. How shall we proceed? 

Handling and Placing the Harness : 

T. Remove the harness from the hanger and carry it on the 
right arm, the right hand grasping the off side of the saddle and the 
left hand the near side. 

2. From the near side of the horse, place the harness gently 
on the back near the loin (in order to allow slack for the crupper), 
pull down the breeching to proper position, and put the crupper in 
place. See that there are no hairs from the tail caught between 
ihe crupper and the dock. 

3. Lift the saddle clear of the back, carry it forward into place, 
and draw the pad girth sufficiently tight. For two-wheeled carts, 
this girth must be tight, but for four-wheeled vehicles only mod- 
erately so. 

4. Get the bridle and breast collar, carry them on the left arm, 
take off the halter and slip the breast collar over the head. Hold 
the bridle by the crown piece in the right hand, which may also 
grasp the foretop to steady the head, raise the bridle until it is in 
position, and then with the left hand slip the bit into the mouth. 

Do not crowd the bit against the teeth. If the horse is reluctant 
to take it,'he can usually be induced to do so by crowding the thumb 
into one side of the mouth and a finger into the opposite side. In 
very cold weather the bit should be warmed by the breath or by 
holding it a moment in the hand, else it may stick to the tongue. 

When the horse has taken the bit, gently draw the crown piece 
over the ears, being careful to straighten out the foretop and the 
mane. The foretop should be underneath the brow band. Fasten 
the throat latch loosely and see that blinds, brow band, and throat 
latch fit comfortably. The bit should not be so low that the horse 
will be likely to get his tongu^ over it ; neither should it be so high 
that it will wrinkle and make the skin sore at the corners of the 
mouth. 

5. Secure the lines to the bit (assuming they are doubled 
through the pad-terrets — the rings on the pad), straighten the lines, 
buckle their ends together, double them, and run them through the 
near pad-terret. 

Hitching Up : 

I. In "hitching up" or "putting to" the single horse, remember 
that shaft ends are rather frequently broken by attempting to back 
the horse between them while the shafts or thills are resting upon 
the ground. The shaft should be raised from the ground and the 



horse brought under, or he should be placed in front of the shaft and 
the vehicle brought forward from behind. 

2. With the horse in the shafts, run the shaft ends through 
the tugs, or shaft bearers. Fasten the traces and so adjust the length 
as to bring the horse as close to the vehicle as possible without 
danger of hitting the quarters, hocks, or feet. Then draw the tug 
girth tight enough to hold the shafts firmly in place (this for four- 
wheelers; for carts, allow a little slack), and finally fasten the hold- 
back straps. 

3. The hold-back straps should be so wrapped about the shafts 
that when the traces are drawn taut, the breeching can be pulled 
three or four inches back from the quarters. It is well to wrap 
hold-backs or breeching straps in the following manner: Bring 
the point of the strap underneath the trace and shaft a few inches 
in front of the leather loop on the shaft, then bring it around over 
the shaft and pull it tight. Give it two or three wraps about the 
shaft, depending upon the length of the strap ; bring the point back 
through the loop on the shaft from the outside, and carry it under 
the trace to the buckle, 

HARNESSING THE TEAM 

Placing the Hahness: 

1. If the collar is closed at the top, turn it upside down, shp 
it gently over the head, and reverse it to the proper position at the 
throat before attempting to adjust it to the shoulder. If it is 
buckled, unfasten the top and, raising the collar into position, hold 
it there with the left hand while fastening it at the top with the 
right hand. Collars taken off and put on over the head without 
unfastening will last longer than those which are opened at the top 
— some teamsters say at least twice as long. The open collar will 
last longer and fit better if it is buckled together as soon as it is 
removed. 

With the horse's head in the position in which he holds it when 
at work and with the collar pressed firmly back, it should fit snugly 
on all its bearing surface and leave room to insert the flat of the 
hand at the windpipe. If sweat pads are used to make collars fit, 
they should be always in place. Well-fitting collars which are kept 
clean go far toward enabling a horse to do his full duty with ea^ie 
to himself and his driver. 

2. After the collar is in place, take the harness from the hanger 
with the right arm underneath it, the right hand grasping the off 
hame, and the left, the near one. Do not drag the harness on the 
back of the horse, but lift it clear of him, and carry it well forward, 
putting the hames on the collar and the rest of the harness on the 
back with enough slack to enable the hames to go into place easily. 
Buckle the hames, remembering that they should fit the collar snugly. 
The hame strap at the bottom should lie drawn tight. One day's 
work with improperly fitted hames may ruin a good collar, or if the 
hames are loose the neck is almost certain to become sore. 



3- Lift llie l>rccching clear of the back, put it in place, buckle 
(he belly band, and fasten the breeching straps to the ring in the 
rear end of the martingale, or choke strap. 

4. Put on the bridle as directed for the single horse. J hen, 
using the hitch rein, back the horse out of his stall, secure his mate, 
and after watering, the team is ready to be "hitched up"' or "put 
tr ," whatever kind of wagon or tool is to be used. 

Hitching Up: 

1. If the team is to be hitched to a wagon, walk it to the point 
of the wagon tongue. Then, with a hitch rein up close in each 
hand, quietly step each horse into his place beside the tongue. Lead- 
ing or driving horses across tongues causes needless breaking, par- 
ticularly when the tongues are made of brash wood, as are those 
o\' many farm implements. 

2. Take down the lines, throwing the ofT line over the horse's 
back to the near side; fasten them to the bit rings after seeing thai 
the checks are not twisted, double them twice, and hang them on the 
outside hame of the near hor.'^e. Then tie up the hitch reins. 

3. Pick up the neck yoke and adjust the martingale and breast 
straps. Slip the center ring of the neck yoke over the point of the 
tongue, and cpietly back the horses into position for fastening the 
traces, the length of which should be such as to prevent the neck 
yoke from slipping off the tongue and not so tight as to be uncom- 
fortable 

4. Fasten the inside trace of the near horse, and the inside 
and outside traces of the off horse; then walk around the horses' 
heads, carry back the lines, and fasten the outside trace of the near 
horse. The team is now ready to be driven. 

This procedure is handiest for hitching to right-hand machinery. 
In hitching to carriages and wagons, it is frequently the practice to 
finish on the off side and mount the driver's seat from that side. 
With young or restive horses, it is advisable to carry the lines on 
the arm while hitching and unhitching. 

Unhitching: In unhitching, reverse the procedure as outlined 
above for "hitching up," and be careful to prevent lines and traces 
from being dragged about and cut or soiled by tramping. Going 
at these things unsystematically is often the cause of damaged har- 
ness and spoiled horses. The careless handler of horses' harness 
and machinery frequently costs more in delay and repairs than his 
services are worth, to say nothing about losing the pleasure which 
is derived from work well done. 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 7 
WORKING FARM HORSES 

A horse thai is well groomed, properly haniessecl, and hitched 
np is ready for work, and his usefuhiess depends entirely upon the 
skill w ith which he is driven and managed. 

DRIVING 

Do not hnrry at the start. Take up your lines, draw them taut, 
speak to the team, and start slowly. Start hoth horses of the team 
together; do not let one of them get ahead of the other. The most 
useful gait of the farm horse is a rapid walk, and the teamster has 
much to do in maintaining and perfecting this gait. Horses work 
best for firm, though quiet and kind teamsters; more work is usually 
done where there is the least fuss. Keep your eyes open, w^atch 
the team, and watch the road ahead. A gentle pressure, just feel- 
ing the horse's mouth, should be exerted on the lines, except for 
emergencies, when a firm line promptly applied may save trouble. 
The two extrem.es are bad, that is, driving with loose, flopping lines. 
or hanging on to the lines with a "hard hand," making the horse 
pull the weight of the driver with his month. The one gives no 
control of the team and may be dangerous. The other teaches tlie 
horse to pull with the mouth, making him a "hard driver," besides 
giving no slack of line for an emergency. It is the sudden taking 
up of the slight slack, which goes with all good driving, tliai may 
prevent a runaway. 

IIORSK TAIJC 

TTorses cannot understand conversation. All good horsemen 

therefore teach them the few words they need to know and are 

careful not to confuse them by a conglomeration of horse talk 

which they cannot comprehend. The words commonly used are : 

'Whoa," pronounced "ivho" in a moderate voice but with a 

I 



short decided inflection which seems to command instant obedi- 
ence. The life of the driver or of his passengers may some time 
depend upon its being promptly obeyed. Do not, like poor horse- 
men, utter a succession of commands — "whoa," "whoa," "whoa," etc. 
The effect of this is to excite the horse and probably to send him 
off, at least to give him a very poor opinion of you, in which case 
you have lost his confidence. Say "whoa" once and expect it to 
be heeded, enforcing the injunction with the lines if necessary. 

This is the first command taught a green colt and it shoul4 never 
be used for any other meaning than to slop and stand still. Indif-^ 
ferent horsemen sometimes use the word wath a long drawn-out ^ 
pronunciation, "whoa-a-a," to steady the team when under condi- 
tions likely to irritate or frighten it. But a different word is better, 
so that "whoa" shall mean but one thing. The term "Steady" is 
commonly used to quiet the team. 

"Get Up." This command, or a clucking sound made by the 
tongue against the side of the mouth, means to go ahead. Many 
good • horsemen start the team by tightening the lines as a signal 
that everything is ready for a start. In general, good horsemeil 
use the lines as much as possible for conveying information and 
speak only when necessary. 

"Back" means, of course, to go backward in a straight line. It.-^ 
is the last Avord taught the green horse because, in general, horses 
do not like to back. Their legs are built for going ahead, and a 
horse never goes backward unless compelled to do so. The lines 
help, but no good horseman will pull a horse backward rapidly. It 
is not only cruel but sometimes dangerous. 

"Gee" and "Haw." As oxen are not driven with lines, the ox 
teamster has no means of turning to the right or the left except by 
words of command. With him "Gee" means "turn to. the right," 
and "Haw" means "turn to the left." Horses are generally guided 
by the lines, but in some kinds of work both hands are employed, 
and for this reason most work horses are taught to mind "Gee" 
and "Haw." ^ ^ 

The same terms are used with mules, but all horse talk varies^ 
somewdiat in different localities. The driver must adopt the terms 
of his own section, whatever they may be. No good teamster ever 
yells at his horses. Nothing will confuse or frighten them quicker. 
Nothing must be said or done to give them the slightest reason to 
suppose that the driver Is excited, confused, frightened, or other- 
wise than in full command of the situation. It is never to be for- 
gotten that safety around horses depends upon the confidence which , 



the horse has in his human companion, whom he regards as a very 
superior being, and nothing must be done to dispel that ilkision. 

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS 

Watering: Never water a horse when he is warm; it may 
easily ruin him. Some horses drink very rapidly, especially wheii 
thirsty, and if allowed to go to the tank they will drink enough to 
injure themselves before it would be suspected. A horse is never 
too hot for a few swallows, say a gallon or even two gallons, and 
he ought to have as much as that. An hour later when fully cooled 
he may have all he wants. 

Feeding : Never feed grain when the horse is heated. Hay 
may be fed at any time, but to feed grain to a heated horse is to 
"founder" hi^m almost as certainly as to give him all the water he 
wants. The foundered horse is permanently "stiffened" and his 
usefulness, like his value, is easily reduced by one half ; besides, he 
works in constant misery. Feed hay at any time, but withhold 
grain and water until the horse is "cooled out" — anyway an hour 
after unhitching. This all applies with special force in the early 
spring when the horses are "soft." Later in the season or when 
at moderate work, the team may commonly be watered and fed at 
once upon unhitching. What constitutes a "warm" horse will have 
to be learned, but if sweating freely or if "lathering," he is too warm 
to feed or water. 

Sweating: A "soft" horse at any time, or any horse in hot 
weather, will sweat when at heavy work, but he should not show 
signs of weariness. // the sweat suddenly dries up on a hot day, 
get him into the shade and give him a rest. 

Resting: Rather frequent short stops for rest are preferable 
to occasional long ones. At these times raise the collar to air the 
.shoulders, and pull out any strands of mane which may have 
worked under it. 

Cruelty: Probably the most cruel and useless habit a team- 
ster can 'have is that of punishing his horses by savagely jerking 
them. No horse which is continually afraid of his mouth will pull 
well, neither will he thrive. How would you like to wear a bit in 
your own mouth? The only case in which punishing the mouth is 
necessary or justifiable is in stopping horses which have started to 
bolt or run away. This should be done by a sudden heavy jerk 
with one line, followed by attempted control with both lines, keeping 
the team in a straight-away course, if this is possible, until they 
have quieted down. In general the driver is the one to be blamed 



I 111 a riinawny, but it mtist be tmdersLOod tbal no man can by main 
strength hold a horse — it is always a question of management. 

Backing: Be careful in backing; back slowly because horses 
are frequently strained in backing heavy loads for careless drivers. 
Mares heavy in foal may lose their foals from strains brought on 
ill this way. 

Hitching: One must use discretion in leaving horses unit- 
tended; it is not safe to tie them to wire fences which they may 
paw into and in which they may get their feet fastened, to the in- 
jury of both horse and fence. Bad accidents have occurred because 
of carelessness regarding this point. When moving from one place 
to another either lead or drive the horse ; never leave him to wander 
about. Above all do not slip off his halter and let him go loose 
lo the water tank. 

Pr.vctice: Get as much practice as you can by riding with a 
good teamster. Helping him to do a few jobs will likely result in 
his allowing you to handle the team a bit under his direction. The 
local harness man can tell you much about harness and may be 
persuaded to permit you to become familiar with the different har- 
ness parts in his shop. 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 8 

THE cow 

Chores: Alilking is one of the "chores" which every farm boy 
seems to learn without being taught. While sometimes not so con- 
sidered, milking is really a delicate operation and one which reveals 
much as to the milker's common sense and poise. It is worth learn- 
ing carefully and is, of course, particularly important on farms 
\\here milk is extensively produced. 

Milking Machines: Milking machines are in successful use 
nn specialized dairy farms, but because of breakdowns, hand milk- 
ing is likely to become necessary at any time even there. Milking 
by hand is the rule on ordinary farms, and as it is also necessary 
in finishing after using the machine, it may be called one of the 
standard jobs upon the farm. 

NATURE OF 'rilE T^.WRY COW 

The dairy cow, sometimes referred to as a iiiilcJi cow, is naturally 
of a rather nervous disposition. It might be more accurate to speak 
of her as sensitive. Ai. any rate, she is a highly organized machine 
for converting feed into milk and must be so regarded. 

Milking Oualitv: The extent of the cow's ability to convert 
feed into milk rather than into fat to be laid on the body is known 
as milking quality. Because of this conversion of feed into milk, 
ihe dairy cow is a thin-skinned, lean-looking animal, sometimes 
loose jointed and even clumsy in appearance, carrying little or no 
fat. As she has a thinner covering of fat than has the beef cow. 
she is more easil}' chilled in cold and stormy weather. 

The Calf: The young dairy animal of either sex is called a 
calf, the male being known as a bull calf, and the female as a heifer 
calf. When the young animal approaches twehe months of age it 
is called a yearling heifer or yearling bull and retains that designa- 
tion until it reaches, twenty-four months of age. The heifer ordi- 
narily "freshens" — ^that is, bears young — at from twenty-four to 
thirty-six months of age. She is then "in milk" and is called a cow. 
After milking from ten to eleven months, the cow ceases to give 
milk. She is then called "dry," and if she fails to freshen the next 
season she is called "farrow."' The bull calf of dairy breeding is 



not usually of much account to fatten for beef, but in case he is used 
for this purpose he is castrated or emasculated when quite young, 
and from then on is known as a steer. 

MILK SECRETION 

The Glands: The mammary glands of the cow and all their 
external attachments are referred to as the udder, or quite com- 
monly in farm language, as the hag. This is divided internally into 
four compartments, each connecting ^with one of the four teats (pro- 
nounced tits). Emerging from either side of the cow's belly and 
running back to the udder, is a rather large and more or less tortu- ^ 
ous "vein." These two veins, although actually carrying blood, arc - 
commonly referred to as milk veins, and the openings through which 
they leave the body are called milk zvells. In expert cow judging 
the fulness of these veins and the size of the milk wells are con- 
sidered as a good index of milking quahty. 

Amount Secreted: The amount of milk which a cow will be 
able to yield will depend upon three factors : 

1. Her breeding. 

2. The kind and amount of feed. 

3. Her general care. 

As the breeding is beyond the control of the helper, and as the 
ration is fixed by the farmer, the subject of interest here is the care 
of the cow, and too mncli attentinn cannot be given to this phase of 
the daily business. (^ 

CARE OE THE DAIRY COW 

Eeed: Whatever the ration, it should be fed regularly, and the 
cow permitted to enjoy herself while earning it. 

Treatment: Remember always that the secretion of milk is 
the function of a mother and that the cow requires, as well as de- 
serves, gentle treatment. She must always be free from, excite- 
ment or fright. It has been noted on specialized dairy farms that 
if a strange dog happens to run through the barn at milking time it 
may cause a striking decrease in the amount of milk yielded at that 
time. More than with any other farm animal, except the horse, the 
workman coming near should always let his presence be known by 
speaking, and, if he is working close to the cow, he makes his pres- >^ 
cnce grateful by stroking his hand across her back. Men accus-v 
tomed to working with cows do this instinctively. 

Cleaning: In cleaning the cow with currj^comb and brush, 
remember that she is a thin-skinned and nervous animal and be 
gentle accordingly. Take particular pains to brush the udder and 
adjacent region, because naturally this makes a difference in the 
cleanliness of the milk produced. Always exercise extreme care 
in cleaning or touching the cow's udder, as this is a delicate gland, 
very easily injured. Even a slight blow with some hard substance 
like a currycomb may cause inflammation. 



The Fresh Cow : At the time of calving, the cow's udder is 
full and distended and may sometimes be feverish. At this time 
the greatest care is required in milking and only someone thor- 
oughly familiar with cows should attempt it. Incorrect handling 
may cause serious inflammation and injury. The cow's milk for 
the first three or four days is especially adapted to the needs of the 
new-bom calf, but it is not considered fit for human food until the 
"ninth milking" — some say the "seventh." The time varies with 
differenf^ows, but when the milk looks normal it is fit for consump- 
tion. The farmer will determine that point. 

THE PROCESS OF MILKING 

This is something which cannot be taught without practice, but 
lliere are several hints well worth learning. The principle ones are 
the following: 

1. Remember that the milker works on the right-hand side oF 
the cow. To approach her on the left is to betray ignorance. 

2. The first movement is to put the hand upon the right hip 
of the cow with a gentle push, when, if well broken, she will "hoist," 
that is, set her right hind foot somewhat back of the left, giving 
ready access to the udder. 

3. The milker should not work at arm's length, but, seated 
upon the stool with the pail between the knees, his head should be 
close against the flank. 

4. Grasp one teat in each hand, working with diagonal quarters ; 
that is, when the right hand is working with the right fore teat, let 
the left hand work with the left hind teat, and correspondingly for 
the other two quarters. 

5. In grasping the teats, remember that milking is a pumping 
process. Grasp first around the upper end close to the udder witli 
the thumb and forefinger. This prevents the milk from flowing 
back into the udder when the teat is squeezed. By practice you will 
learn to squeeze regularly from the top downward, so that the milk 
is forced otit in an even stream. The expert milker is not neces- 
sarily the most rapid. However, you should keep working steadilv 
in order that the milking may be completed promptly. If it is unduly 
delayed, the cow will gradually fail in her milk flow. 

6. Do not milk out two quarters of the udder entirely before 
starting on the. other two. Instead, milk a little while on two quar- 
ters and then change off so that the entire udder is emptied at prac- 
tically the same time. 

7. The final process of milking by which the last drops of milk 
are extracted is called stripping. It is important to milk out this 
last small quantity carefully because it is richer than any other part 
of the milk and because unless it is drawn out it has a tendency to 
encourage the cow to go dry. 

With a strange milker a cow will sometimes "hold up" her milk. 
This is not, as is often believed, due to perversity of the animal, 
but is involuntary and the result of rrervousness. The remedy is 



simply to continue lo 1)C c^entlc and go on milkincj until she s^ets over 
(he ner\ousness. 

Only a few cows are chronic kickers. That is to say, when a 
cow kicks, it is ordinarily because she has some good reason for it. 
If the cow kicks, examine her udder and teats and see if there is 
any evidence of soreness, and breaking out, or any lumpv condition 
which might indicate internal inflammation. In such cases report 
' once to the owner, but do not attempt any treatment yourself. 

The expert milker is the cow's best friend and she is always 
glad to see him. No man is ever justified in assaulting a cow witli 
a milk stool or a club, and any man who does so betrays himself 
at once as not having the proper understanding of. or the ability to 
work with, live stock. *• 




United States Boys* Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 9 
HANDLING MILK ON THE FARM 

Milk is a delicate and valuable food easily injured by careless 
handling. The dairyman, therefore, must be constantly trying to 
produce an article that is both clean and wholesome. This is not as 
easy as it might first appear, for those of us who drink milk are 
interested in tlie following requirements : 

1. That it be free from disease. 

2. That it be free from sediment. 

3. That it possess good keeping quality. 

4. That it have a satisfactory food value. 

^ Freedom from Disease: Milk may become contaminated with 

if' disease directly from the cow, from some milker or barn helper who 

is not in good health, or from utensils that are not kept properly 

sterilized. Healthy cows, healthy workmen and clean vessels are 

therefore a combination neces.sary to produce good milk. 

Sediment: People who use milk, form their opinion of its 
cleanliness quite largely by the amount of sediment they can see in 
the bottom of the pail or bottle. Milk should be produced and 
handled in such a way that it will be practically free from any sedi- 
ment. 



I 



Sourhstg: The souring of milk is due to the growth of micro- 
scopic plants called bacteria. Milk always contains some of these 
organisms. They get in with the dust from the cow and from the 
vessels in which milk is handled. In order tO' grow and multiply, 
bacteria must have food, moisture, and heat. Milk is therefore an 
ideal medium for their growth. The problem of the dairyman in 
keeping milk sweet is accomplished through clean milking, scrupu- 
lously clean milk vessels, and covered pails, which keep the num- 
bers of bacteria as low as possible, and by thorough and rapid cool- 
ing, which creates unfavorable conditions for bacterial growth. 



Food Value: Milk is almost a perfect food, especially for the 
young, thougli its proportion of water unfits it for an exclusive diet 
for adults. 

The composition varies principally as to fat which may range 
from 2 to 7 percent, generally from 3^ to 4 percent. These dif- 
ferences in composition are due principally to the individual and not 
to the kind of feed ; that is, you cannot feed fat into milk. 

Milk is used largely for its fat in the form of cream or butter, 
but whole milk either "raw," condensed, or dried, is used in immense 
quantities in all parts of the world. As most of it is consumed in /t 
llie raw state, that is without sterilizing, it is exceedingly important 
lliat it be kept clean. Inasmuch as all kinds of organisms will grow 
i)i milk, dirty milk is always dangerous. 

Care of Milk Utensils: Pails, strainers, cans, dippers, stir- 
rers, and other milk utensils are the most common sources from 
which milk becomes contaminated and their condition has much to 
do with the quality of milk that reaches the consumer. The fol- 
lowing suggestions for washing and sterilizing these utensils may 
prove to be helpful: 

1. Rinse the tinware in lukewarm water. 

2. Wash thoroughly with hot water containing some good wash- A 
ing powder. Always use a brtish instead of a cloth in washing these 
utensils. 

3. Rinse thoroughly with boiling water or sterilize by steam- 
ing. 

4. Dry all utensils. This may be done by placing them in the 
oven or on the top of a warm stove or by setting them in the sun- 
shine. A di'y vessel is unfavorable for the development of "bacteria 
and sunshine is a good sterilizer. 

Rules for Producing Good Milk: Cleanline=s nnd rnpid cool- 
ing will result in good milk. .Therefore — 

1. The owner should be sure that the cows are healthy and thatn- 
the workmen handling the milk are not suf^'ering from any disease. 

2. Be sure that all vessels coming in contact with the milk are 
clean and sterilized. 

3. Keep the cows clean. 

4. Keep the barn clean. 

5. Milk with dry hands. 

6. It is preferable to use a covered or small-top pail. 

G 



7- If possible cany the milk to a separate room as soon a, 
drawn and strain it. Cool it as quickly as possible. This may be 
done by running it over a mechanical cooler or by setting the can 
in a tank of cold water. 



f 



( 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 10 
SEPARATING AND HANDLING CREAM 

CARE OF CREAM 

On farms where dairying is not the principal business it is frequently the 
custom to sell sour cream to be made into butter, retaining the skim milk at 
home to feed young calves and pigs." Cream for this purpose is often 
neglected, which means that it arrives at the manufacturer's door in poor 
condition. To maintain our standards for creamery butter, the factory must 
be furnished with a good grade of cream. 

It is an economic proposition for a producer of cream to dispose of his 
product at the best possible price. Yet a good many do not stop to consider 
that their cream must be of the best quality in order to command" the highest 



V^ew of 3arreJ 



To W/nd M/fl 




A PROPERLY CONSTRUCTliD COOLING TANK 

I. Inlet, usually i^ inch pipe. 2. Wooden trough, conducting water to within 3 inclics 
of bottom. 3. Sticks, holding cans in place as shown by cut. 4. Show9 position of half 
fiUed can; run stick through handle in cover to prevent it from sliding out from under the 
stick. 5. Shows position of can when filled. 6. Shows position of wiic which prevents 
the cans from tipping. 7. Outlet, usually 2-inch threaded nipple. 



price. In order to pay the highest price for cream the buttermaker must 
make a very good marketable grade of butter, and to do this he must have 
a good grade of raw material from which to make his product. His 
finished product will be no better than the cream from which it is made. 
Therefore, if a farmer expects to receive the best market price for his 
cream, he must produce a quality of cream which will warrant such a price. 
The following rules offer suggestions for caring for cream on the farm: 

I. Keep the cows clean. 

' 2. Use covered milk pails. 

3. Milk with dry hands. 

4. Remove all milk from tlic barn innncdiateiy and separate it al once. 

5. Set the separator so that it will skim cream tihat will test from 35 to 40 
percent in the winter and from 40 to 45 percent in the summer. 

6. Wash, scald, and dry the separator and all utensils immediately after 
using. The separator bowl inay be dried in a warm oven, though the oven 
should not be so warm that' it will melt the tin on the bowl parts. Setting 
utensils in the sun is a good practice, as the sunshine acts as a germicide. 

7. Keep all utensils and separator parts dry when not in use. 

8. Cool the cream immediately, after skimming by setting the can in 
cold running water. Construct a cooling tank so that the cream will be 
cooled with the water that is used to fill the stock tank. 

9. Never mix warm cream with cold cream. Cool the cream before 
mi King it with previous skimmings. 

10. Do not allow the cream to freeze in cold weather. 

II. Stir the cream at least twice a day; this will keep it smooth and 
free from lumps. Do not use a wooden paddle for a stirrer, as it is insani- 
tary. _ _ . 

12. The cream should be delivered frequently, at least twice a week in 
winter and three times a week in warm weather. , 

CARE OF THE CREAM SEPARATOR 

Tliere are a great many different makes of separators on the market, and 
most of them will do efficient skimming if they are run ->.nd cared for 
l)roperly. If a separator fails to do good work, it is more often the fault of 
the operator tlian of the construction of the machine. No matter how well 
a separator may l)c constructed, if it is abused by improper usage it will 
soon fail to do properly the work for which it was designed. 

The following suggestions may be of help to separator operators : 

1. Set the separator level on a solid foundation and bolt it down firmly. 
It is well to have a piece of rubber packing under each leg of. the sep- 
arator to serve as a cushion for absorbing vibration. 

2. See that all bearings are clean and well lubricated at all times. Clean 
the bearings occasionally with gasoline or kerosene to remove all grease 
that may have become gummy, and thus prevent proper lubrication. 

3. Use only the best hand-separator oil. Never use common machine 
oil. 

4. Be sure to turn the separator at the speed designated by the manu- 
facturer. Time it with a watch or speed iiidicator. 

5. In cold weather run about a gallon of warm water through the bowl 
to warm it before turning on the milk. ■ 

6. Separate the milk as soon after milking as possible, for the milk is 
then warm and in good condition to secure a clean separation. No separator 
will skim cold milk as well as warm milk. The temperature of the milk 
sliould be at least 75° Fahrenheit. 

7. When through skimming, flush the bowl with about two quarts of the 
skim milk. In cold weather, warm water may flush the machine more 
ciTectively. 

8. Wash the separator each time it is used. Wash all separator parts 
with moderately warm water containing' washing soda. When all parts 
are clean, scald' with boiling water and place parts in a warm oven to dry. 

2 
10 



Be sure that the oven is not too hot, as it is likely to melt the tin plating- 
from the bowl parts. Allowing the separator to go unwashfed rot only causes 
the bowl parts to deteriorate but also injures the quality of the cream. It is 
a filthy practice. 

g. When a separator is running, the bowl should spin like a top, with no 
vibration. If the bowl does vibrate, examine the bearings to see if they 
are loose or worn. 

The important bearings are always replaceable. Follow the book of in- 
structions sent with the separator you are using. 

WHY CREAM TESTS VARY 

The question is often asked why the richness, or test, of cream from 
the same separator varies from day to day. The answer to this question 
is found in the way the separator responds to the methods employed by 




different operators, first, the richness of cream is partly determined by 
a device called a cream screw, which may be regulated by a screw driver. 
Turning the screw toward the center of the separator bowl will result 
in richer cream ; turning it away from the center of the bowl will result 
in thinner cream. (Some separators have a skim-milk screw instead of 
a cream screw.) Second, the speed at which the separator is operated 
also has a marked influence on the richness of the cream. Turning too fast 
will make a richer cream; turning too slow will make a thinner cream. 
Third, skimming milk too warm or too cold may also cause a considerable 
deviation from the normal richness of cream. 



10 



Too much emphasis is. often placed on the variations of the test of 
successive cream deliveries. The real comparisons from one delivery to 
the next should be based either on the total pounds of butter fat paid for, 
or on the amount of money received for the cream collected in a given 
number of days. A creamery statement, such as that illustrated, gives infor- 
mation which will make such comparisons possible. 



STATEMENT 


PINE GROVE CREAMERY No. JOOOO 


Test No 

Lbs. Cream 


1 

to 


DOVERS; ILL. 

November 6, 1918 


Test 


38 


To FIRST NATIONAL BANK 


Lbs. Fttt .... 


15,« 




Price 

Amount 


GOV 

.$9.1» 


Pay ^"^^ ^^/^^^ Dollars $'''' 


Clieck No.. . . 


...10000 


Tr. fViQ ,^y-r?Q^ nf J okn Smith, l)overs,Ill. 


Pine Grove 


Creamery 




Povers, 111. 

For correction return 
ttiis statement 




Manager 



The first item, "Test No.," is simply a factory record and has no signifi- 
cance to the cream shipper. 

"Lbs. Fat" refers to the net weight of cream delivered. 

"Test" refers to the percentage of butter fat in the cream delivered, as 
determined by the Babcock test 



CALCULATING THE PRICE 

Multiplying the pounds of cream delivered by the test, or percentage of 
fat, gives the pounds of butter fat. In the illustration above, 40 pounds 
of cream testing 38 percent gives 15.2 pounds of butter fat. 

If the price paid for butter fat is 60 cents per pound, the total amount 
due for the can of cream is found by multiplying the pounds of fat by the 
price; for example, i5.2x$o.6o equals $9.12. 

It is always well for a farmer selling cream to weigh his cream and to 
test it if possible before shipping. 



United States Boys* Worldng Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 

LESSON 11 
SWINE * 

Importance: From swine flesh we get the much-demanded 
lard, bacon, hams, spare-ribs, pork chops, sausage, and salt pork. 
The meat contains a large amount of fat which is "tried out" and 
is then known as lard. The average consumption of pork per 
person per year in the United States averages about seventy-five 
pounds. We export large quantities of pork to foreign countries 
each year, and at present are producing about one half of the total 
amount in the entire world. Hogs are found on nearly every farm 
in the United States. They have been selected and developed for 
one specific purpose — that of furnishing human food, although in 
packing houses we find that some of the inedible portions of the 
hog have very definite uses and distinct values in the industries; 
for example, bristles. 

Terms to Denote Sex and Age: The female of any age is 
culled a sow, but if she is under a year old or has not produced off- 
spring, she is called a gilt. A hoar is a male of any age which has 
not been castrated or emasculated — an operation frequently spoken 
of as "altering," "changing," or "doctoring." The castrated male 
is regularly called a harrow, but if the male is castrated after it has 
been used for breeding, or if it has developed the striking masculine 
characteristics, such as a heavy head, shoulder, or sheath, or large 
testicles and general roughness, it is called a stag. Young hogs of 
cither sex are ordinarily called pigs up to the time they weigh one 
hundred and twenty-five pounds. Shote, or shoat, is a term appHed 
to gilts or barrows weighing from seventy-five to two hundred 
pounds, there being no definite line where one term ceases to apply 
and the other begins. The term hog is correctly applied uo mature 
animals, when referring" to swine of any age or either sex. 



* Swine is the correct name to apply to all ages and both sexes of hugs 
or pigs individually or collectively. 

I 
II 



Farrowing: When the sow gives birth to young it is called 
farrowing, and the pigs which are farrowed at that time — there 
may be from one to twenty, but normally from six to ten — are 
spoken of collectively as her litter. Thus we may say that the sow 
farrowed a litter of eight pigs. 

Feeds: On account of the single purpose for which the hog 
has been developed, it is particularly etficient in converting grains 
into edible meat. It has limitations, however. The hOg cannot han- 
dle bulky feeds, such as hay or silage, in very large quantities, al- 
though he is especially fond of clover and alfalfa in small amounts 
either as hay or pasture. The digestive tract is of small capacity 
and it is consequently adapted to the use of the more concentrated 
feeds like corn, oats, and the other grains and seeds, or any feed 
which has a small amount of crude fiber. Garbage, house-slop, and 
\arious other by-products are readily consumed by swine and 
through them converted into valuable food for the human diet.''' 
1"he pig is a good scavenger. He will select food, out of the manure 
of other farm animals, especially cattle, and secures from that source 
much food which is converted into pork rather than being wasted or 
returned to the soil. 

Supplementing Corn : Corn is the principal feed for swine 
especially in the corn-belt States, but to it we must add some other 
feed to furnish a balanced ration, since corn is noticeably deficient 
in protein and minerals. Young pigs just weaned will starve on a 
corn and witer diet if allowed no other feed. Skim milk or butter- 
milk — dairy by-products — are the best supplements to use with 
corn. Tankage — digester tankage or meat meal, but not fertilizer 
tankage— :anks second as a supplement to corn and is used in the 
l)roportion of about one part to nine or ten parts of com for pigs 
under one hundred pounds in weight, and one part to thirteen or 
fifteen parts with shotes heavier than one hundred pounds. Other 
feeds, such as linseed oil meal, middlings, soy beans, oats, barley, 
wheat, rye and legume hay, or any kind of pasture, may be used 
with corn in varying proportions with good results. Since hogs 
have a limited capacity for handling roughage, they cannot con- 
sume enough of even the best of pasture, like alfalfa, rape, or clover, 
to balance the corn ration if they are given a full feed of com. Thus 
for best results with corn and pasture some other supplement rich 
in protein should be used. 



* A small amount of salt is good for hogs, but large amounts are fatal- 
f;iot to bo remembered in feeding tabic or dairy refuse. 



I ( 



Minerals: \'ery few combinations of feeds give the pig- 
enough mineral matter for proper growth and development. Some 
mixture, such as slack coal three parts, air-slacked lime or ground 
limestone two parts, and common salt one part, should be kept in 
troughs be^re the hogs at all times. They will grow more rapidly 
and be less subject to disease if such ingredients are supplied along 
with the grain ration. 

Water : Hogs will drink large quantities of water in both sum- 
mer and winter — more than they commonly get — and an abundance 
of clean water goes a long way towards keeping the hogs in a healthy 
condition. The hog cannot sweat; therefore in hot weather he 
needs to "wallow," not for the mud but for the cooling effect of 
the water! 

Feeding: The most common practice is to feed ear corn on 
the ground or "feeding floor, and to mix the other ingredients with 
water, pouring this slop mixture into the troughs. This is done 
twice daily. The tendency now is to use methods which save labor, 
and with that in view many are doing away with slop feeding and 
use the tankage, mill-feeds, and other supplements dry. Hogs eat 
dry feed almost, if not quite, as well as when it is mixed with water. 
Many feeders are using self-feeders that hold a supply of grain 
sufficient for several days, thus obviating the necessity of feeding 
two or three times each day. When hogs are self-fed they gain 
rapidly and are fattened for market at a rather early age, requiring 
a minimum of labor but using about the same quantity of grain as 
with hand-feeding. 

Shelter: Hogs are commonly housed in small, low buildings, 
spoken of as "cots" or sheds. The prime requisites for a good 
shelter are dryness and freedom from drafts. During the summer 
some sort of protection from the sun's rays is needed. Shade trees 
furnish the best means, but any other shelter, under which there is 
a free circulation of air, will answer the purpose. 

General Hints: Pigs should never be driven about the pens 
faster than a slow walk. Keep the dog away from the pigs, for 
he may chase and overheat them. If they start to run, get around 
them as best you can, but don't run them, for they easily become 
overheated and may suddenly die from heat or from shock, and 
excitement. 

Pigs are stubborn, but two stubborn things together will ne\er 
make much progress. Therefore keep your temper when handling 
hogs. 



I I 



Ilogs will do better In small bunches than in large droves. Ihcy 
appreciate kindness and will pay well for good care, good feed, and 
a good place in which to sleep and rest. They are naturally the 
cleanest of all farm animals, being the only ones that will not will- 
ingly foul their own quarters. • 

"Take note of any animal appearing dull or "dumpish" and re- 
port it immediately to the owner. Timely action may save an entire 
herd from contagious disease. 




C 



13 



1. Snout 

2. Face 
3- Ear 
4. Neck 

>;. Shoulder 
6. Back 
7- Loin 



PARTS OF THE HOG (MALE) 

S. Rump 

9. Ham 

TO. Tail. 

1 1. Testicle 

1 2. Hock 

13. Dew claws 



14. .Shcatli 

15. Belly 

16. Sidt" 

17. Jowl . 

18. tyc 

19. Tusk 



it 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 

LESSOrJ 12 

CARE OF FARM EQUIPMENT 

A good many hundred dollars are invested in Ihe buildings, 
fences, and machinery of the farm. These necessary adjuncts of 
llie business are exceedingly perishable, and the careless workman 
will destroy more by his carelessness than he can produce by his 
labor. The proper use and care of this equipment, therefore, is 
one of the first obligations resting upon the helper. 

Buildings.: Special care ?hould be exercised not to drive against 
the corners of buildings or the sides of doorways. Manure should 
not be allowed to pile up against the side, of the barn. If necessary 
make a guard of old boards. Windows should be protected against 
breakage. Doors should either be shut or fastened open, not left 
to be torn off the hinges by swinging in the wind. We say of the 
man who leaves doors open behind him that he must have been 
brought up in a saw mill. There is no surer way to injure a horse 
than to drive or lead him through partially opened doors or gates. 
It is only a question of time till one will close up with him, and 
when it happens he will not back out, but will probably injure him- 
self in trying to go ah"-"(l. 

FiiNCKS AND Gatls : Gatcs like doors should not be left to 
swing. Prestmiably a gate is always to be closed. Do not drive 
against gate posts nor into fences in turning at the ends of rows. 
Never hitch to a wire fence or a gate, for horses like to paw; and 
do not hitch to a shade tree, for they like to gnaw bark and to 
brouse twigs. 

Do not climb over wire fences. If compelled to do so choose a 
place next to a good post, and step close to the supports. Never 
pile anything against a fence, for it will surely push it over. 



Pumps: Do not jerk a band pump, but pump witb a long, 
steady stroke. Do not leave the windwill running needlessly in a 
high wind. 

Machinery: The proper' use and care of farm machinery 
falls under a considerable number of definite heads that may be 
enumerated as follows: 

1. Know before starting to use a machine exactly what it is 
designed to do, and how it is intended to work. 

2. Never put a machine to a use for which it was not intended : 
For example, never use a monkey wrench for a hammer ; never use 
the head of an axe to pound anything mad^e of iron; and never use 
a good mowing machine or the best scythe to cut weeds unless posi- 
tively directed to do so. In that case, look out for snags, old iron, 
and fence or baling wire that may injure or destroy the knives, 

3. Know when the tool is working properly, and if it is a 
piece of geared machinery learn the peculiar sound it ought to make. 
When it l)egins to make a different sound stop and hunt for troubk\ 

4. I-earn to know all the places for oil or for grease on every 
machine you undertake to use. Be sure to find all the places, and 
be sure that the oil holes are open. Do not oil or grease a place not 
intended for lubrication ; for example, an unprotected part working 
in the dust. 

5. From time to time clean all running parts that collect gum 
or worn-out grease. If they cannot be readily reached, a little kero- 
sene will cut the old gum and clean the part fairly well. 

6. Never drive a geared tool fasten than intended. Therefore 
do not trot the team with a mower, binder, drill, or even the disk 
harrow. 

7. Keep all stationary parts tight, and all working parts snug 
but not tight. If a piece of wood is bolted between two pieces of 
iron, keep it well soaked with oil or the iron will eventually cut it 
in two by repeated swelling and shrinking. 

8. If a nut works loose, ta'.e it entirely off, clean and oil the 
thread upon the bolt, and clean the bearing against which the nut 
is to be screwed doivn, for sand or dirt left there will act as roller 
bearings to loosen the nut again. 

9. Do not let nuts become so tightly rusted that they cannot be 
removed. To prevent this, api)ly a little oil or kerosene occasionally. 

10. Remember always that niost bolts and nuts are right- 
handed; that IS, to turn a nut with the hands of a watch is to 
tighten it, and vice versa. 



11. When adjusting the wrench to tighten or loosen a nut, 
make the wrench fit snugly, else the corners of the nut are likely to 
be worn away. 

12. To take off a stubborn nut it may be necessary to start it 
with a cold chisel. A glass stopper can be removed from a ground 
glass neck by heating, and a plug or cap can be twisted loose by 
doubling a stout string, beginning at the free ends and wrapping 
it around to the left until only the loop remains. A stick run 
through this loop as a lever will loosen almost anything. 

Sharpening Tools: Every cutting tool should be sharp, and 
each must be sharpened in a different way, the general principle 
being not to cut away any more metal than is necessary to get a 
good edge. In general the grindstone or the emery wheel is made 
to turn against the edge of the tool, else the edge will be "feathered" 
and rough. Touching special cases: 

1. Mower knives are generally sharpened by a special emery 
wheel but the work may be done on the grindstone. In either case 
be careful to get a true bevel, and do not sharpen the point of the 
sections -more than is absolutely necessary. 

2. Tht axe and the scythe are sharpened on the grindstone, 
turning against the edge. The manner of holding must be learned 
by observation. 

3. The spade and the hoe are sharpened with a flat file, doing 
the sharpening oh the front or hollowing side in the case of the 
spade, and on the side next to the handle in the case of the hoe. 

'Precautions: Never strike an axe into the ground or drop it 
carelessly, as it is almost certain to be dulled. Protect the cutting 
edge of every tool, even the spade and the hoe, against unnecessary 
abuse. Never lay a scythe upon the ground but always hang it 
up, lest people or animals run against it and get an ugly cut. 

Care of Bright Surfaces: Cutting tools should have their 
surfaces as well as their edges protected. If at all exposed to 
weather they should be kept well oiled. 

Plowshares, moldboards, and cultivator sliovels, as well as 
spades, hoes, and shovels, should be well cleaned whenever used in 
sticky soil, and immediately oiled. A flat brush with a dish of heavy 
oil is generally to be found prepared for this purpose. It not found, 
it might be well to ask for it. 

Care of Harness : Lines should never be allowed to drag upon 
the ground or get under the horses' feet. Harness should be occa- 



siunuily taken apail, ciLaued vviLii soap and waiiii waLer, oiled, and 
carefully repaired where needed, 



Next only to the proper handling of horses, the helper will 
endear himself to his employer more by showing intelligent and 
workmanlike care of equipment than by any other means, and this 
easy road to the farmer's good graces is heartily recommended. * 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 

LESSON 13 
THE WAGON AND ITS PARTS 

The wagons used on Illinois farms can be divided into two 
general types, namely, farm wagons and farm trucks. 

The Wagon: The farm wagon may have front wheels as 
large as forty-four inches in diameter and rear wheels fifty inches. 
I'itted with box and with rack, it is used for general farm work, 
but it is best adapted to the highway and for hauling to market 
grain, hay, live stock, and other finished products. 

The Truck: The truck has smaller wheels — not over thirty- 
six inches in diameter in front and forty inches behind — and hence 
requires more horse power, especially on uneven ground. To offset 
this disadvantage the wheels have wider tires, often from four to 
five inches. This prevents settling into the soft ground of the fields, 
for the truck is used mainly on the farm, where its low platform, in- 
stead of a box, and its smaller wheels especially adapt it to hauling 
hay, potatoes in boxes, grain in the bundle, fencing, and all sorts 
of materials that are moved about upon the farm. 

DETAILS OF A WAGON 

Track : The "track" of a wagon, as marked in Fig. i, is the 
lateral distance between the centers of the wheels measured on the 
ground. There are two standard widths for track; the wide track, 
which is five feet in width; and the narrow track, most generally 
used, which measures four feet, six inches. 

Running Gear: The entire part of the wagon shown in Fig. 
I, including the wheels, axles, bolsters, and reach, is called the run- 
ning gear. This is what in an automobile would be called the chassis. 
With this running gear can be used a tight box for hauling grain 
or other loose material, a hay rack, a hog rack, and various other 
types of special bodies. 

Springs may be used to support the box on a wagon, but this is 
not common practice. 

I 

13 



In putting a hay rack on a wagon the reach is lengthened and 
extra bolsters are put in to hold the rack up above the wheels. 

In hilly countries brakes are necessary on the wheels, but in a 
flat prairie country these are not used. 

Parts of the Wagon : It is well for the student to faniiharize 
himself with the names of the parts of a wagon. This knowledge is 
of importance because it will sometimes be necessary for the boy 




Track 

I'iguic I 

working on the farm to describe a certain part, as when something 
is broken or lost, and he will find this difhcult if he does not know 
the names. ' 

F\g. 2 shows the tongue and its attachments. It is often referred 
to as the pole. Note that the wagon Jianuner which attaches the 
doubletree to the wagon and through which all of the pulling force 
is transmitted is also a wrench which fits the imts on the axles. 



Wammtr SiraJD 

Wd^OC l1aT72f?2€r- 




^c 



Pol 




£>rac£ or Itoond 



I'i.crlue 



Fig. 3 shows the parts which are used with the tongue. The 
neck yoke fits on the front end of the tongue and is also fastened 
to the hames of each horse. The neck yoke, therefore, supports the 
front end of the tongue from the- horses' necks and also guides the 
wagon as the horses turn one way or the other. In hitching the 
horses to the wagon always put on the neck yoke and slip its ring 



over the end of the tongue first of all. It may readily he seen that 
if, with the end of the tongue still lying on the ground, the harness 
were attached to the singletrees and the horses should suddenly 



Stay Chain 



J'JscL Yok,c 




Ceorcr Clijj 



Figure 3 



-boUkr Plal 




Sand board Plait 



Figure 4 



hecome frightened, the situation would he dangerous. Always at- 
tach the lines first, then the neck yoke, and last of all the tugs or 

traces. 



I 3 



Fig. 4 shows. the details of the front part of the running gear. 
I ig. 5 shows the corresponding details of the rear part. Fig. 6 
shows details of the wheel. fFelloe is pronounced felly.) 




^'^^^ Axl 



rigurc 5 




4 



I 3 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 14 
CARE OF THE WAGON 

The wagon like anv other implenienl needs care if it is to do 
its work and last well. 

(lKEASiN(i: The bearings between the skeins and skein boxes, 
thai is, the bearings upon which the wheels revolve, are the only- 
parts of a wagon which require frequent lubrication. This should 
lie attended to as often as necessary to keep the surfaces from wear- 
ing bright. It is hard on the wagon and also much heavier pulling 
for the horses if attention is not given to this point. .\ good grade 
(if axle grease is ordinarily used for tlie purpose, and usually ap- 
plied with a wooden paddle. 

Fig. I shows the common method of greasing the wagon. The 
axle nut is taken off and the wheel slipped cautiously outward until 
llie .skein is partly exposed, when grease, to the amount of two or 
three tablespoonfuls, can be applied and the wheels slipped back 
into place. This operation requires caution because of the danger 
that the wheel will slip entirely off and let the axle fall to the 
ground. Most farms, however, are equipped with wagon jacks with 
which the weight of the wagon is lifted so that the wheel may be 
taken entirely oif, giving a better opportunity for proper cleaning 
and oiling. 

Turning or Backing: In turning or backing a wagon, great 
care should be exercised that the angle of turn is not so sharp as 
to throw undue strain upon the tongue, the reach, and the wheel. 
This is one of the most common abuses to which a wagon is sub- 
jected. 

When a wagon with a box is turned, one of the front wheels 
strikes the rub iron on the side of the box. If an attempt is made 
to turn still shorter, a strain is not only thrown upon the wheel and 
tongue, but the corner of the tire cuts into the lower corner of the 
liox. ultimately wearing the rub iron in two. With trucks in wh'.ch 

I 



the front wheel can turn under the rack or box, the condition will 
be somewhat eased, but there is an equal likelihood of breakage 
when too short a turn is made. 

Care of the Felloes : The paint quickly wears off the felloes 
and they should be frequently oiled. Most farmers neglect this 
precaution, and the result is that when the dry season comes the 




J'ig. I. — Greasing the Wagon 

tires become loose. Perhaps the boy can persuade the farmer to 
supply a little linseed or crude oil for the purpose if he has not al- 
ready provided it. 

Loose Tires : Never use a wagon with a loose tire, and as soon 
as you observe such a tire report it. The wheel is one of the most 
expensive parts of the wagon and is easily ruined when the tires 

a 

(4 



;ire loose. A loose tire not only means that sand will work beneath 
the tire and rapidly grind out the felloe so that the tire will not 
lit well even after setting, but also that the spokes will soon be loos- 
ened from the hub, ruining the wheels. 

Temporary relief can be obtained by soaking the wheel in water 
or in hot oil, or by wiring the tire on the felloe. These measures, 
however, should be resorted to only in cases of extreme necessity. 
If a tire should come off when the wagon is in use, stop immediately, 
as a wheel in this condition will be quickly ruined. 

Setting: The only remedy for a loose tire is "setting," a job 
that is usually done by the blacksmith. To "set" the tire, it is re- 
moved from the wheel by tapping the outside of the felloe with a 
hammer until the tire gradually works off and comes away. It is 
then heated and "upset," that is, made smaller by a machine for 
the purpose. Being swelled by the heat it can be easily put over 
the wheel while hot and afterward "shrunk on" by cooling with 
water, which also prevents burning the wheel. 

Care of the Box : Fence posts, stone, manure, and such rough 
or dirty material should never be put into the wagon box. Special 
dump boards are kept on all farms for this rougher use of the 
wagon, and the box itself should be kept clean and whole for haul- 
ing grain. 

When the box is removed from the running gear, it should, if 
possible, be stored. under shelter to protect it from the effects of 
the sun and the rain. If the wagon box must be left out of doors, 
every possible precaution should be taken to preserve it. If it is 
turned bottom up and with one end higher than the other, water will 
drain off much better than if it is left flat. 

As a wagon box is too heavy to be removed In one piece, the 
tip-top and the top boxes are generally taken off separately. If 
these parts are removed while assembled, they are likely to be 
twisted out of shape or broken. It is much better to remove the 
end gates, replacing the rod so that it will not be lost, and store 
the parts flat. 

Rivets, Bolts, and Rods : As with other farm implements, any 
rivet or bolt on the wagon which comes loose should be tightened 
immediately. There are no minor abuses that will cause more 
rapid deterioration of a machine than carelessness in attending to 
these small details. "Do it now" is the motto to follow in the re- 
pair of wagons as of other machinery'. 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 15 
THE PLOW 

The plow is universally recognized as the fundamental implement 
for tillage of the soil. The hoe and the plow in very crude forms 
were undoubtedly the first tools used by man for agricultural pur- 
poses, and very probably the plow will be the first implement that 
the city boy employed on a farm will be called upon to operate. 

Good Plowing : Good plowing is an art. The real plowman 
who takes pride in his work is an artist, producing that which is 
not only necessary but also beautiful to look upon — a perfectly 
plowed field. He turns a straight iwcroYJ of uniform midth and 
depth, covering the trash, pulverizing the soil, and leaving the ends 
regular. 

. The Walking Plow : The walking plow, turning a single nar- 
row furrow and drawn by a two-horse team, was used almost 
entirely until a few years ago, but in many sections it has now been 
replaced by the larger riding plow, turning two or more furrows. It 
is an advantage to have learned plowing with the walking plow 
because in that way a man is more likely to understand and appre- 
ciate the importance of proper plow adjustments. The more mod- 
ern riding plows can be operated with fair success, even though not 
properly adjusted, while this is impossible with the walking plow. 

Laying Off: In starting to plow a field the area is frequently 
"laid ofif" in spaces or strips called "lands," each of which is to be 
completed separately. The city boy going to the farm will not be 
called upon to lay out a field for plowing, as this is a matter requir- 
ing considerable experience and will be done by the owner or man- 
ager. After the land is laid out, however, the boy should be able 
to follow the furrow and to plow the field without troubling the 
farmer with anything beyond a little initial instruction. To become 
a really good plowman will require not only extreme care but much 
practice, for good plowing is not easy. 

Adjustment of the Plow : Dififerent types of plows have 
varying sorts of adjustments which the boy must learn on the imple- 
ment itself. As the owner decides upon the depth, so will he proba- 
bly adjust the plow for the new helper, and it is the boy's job to 



keep the adjustment as made; indeed, it is a good rule when a plow 
is once properly adjusted to "let it alone." 

Depth : The depth at which the walking plow will run is regu- 
lated by raising or lowering the hitch at the front end of the beam. 
The depth at which the plowing should be done will vary from four 
to eight or nine inches, depending upon the kind of soil, the crop 
to be planted, and the previous treatment of the field. In general, 
sod ground is plowed considerably deeper than stubble. 




A Good Piece of Plowing 

Width : To increase the width of the furrow move the hitch 
at the end of the beam away from the plowed land, and to decrease 
it move the hitch toward the furrow. The maximum width of fur- 
row which a plow will turn will depend upon the width of the plow 
bottom, and the plowman should never attempt a wider furrow, 
for the result will be only to "cut and cover." leaving a bad job to 
be followed by a poor spot in the crop. 

Balks : When plowing, if for any reason the plow should jump 
out of the furrow, do not continue, for that would leave an unplowed 
spot or "balk." It might be covered up by the soil from the next 

2 
16 



furrow and might not show when the job. was finished. That spot, 
however, Avould not be properly prepared to receive the seed and 
would not produce its proportion of the coming crop. In such a 
case, stop the team, pull the plow back, and start again. 

Turning a Corner: To turn a corner when plowing a field 
with a walking plow, stop the implement so that the point is just 
at the end of the furrow slice. Then bring the horses around 
through an angle of forty-five degrees, at the same time pulling the 
plow back and over into the position to cut the desired width of 
furrow. This method will turn all the soil with a minimum of 
labor required in handHng the plow. 

Scouring: One of the most important things in proper plow- 
ing is that the plow bottom should scour ; that is, that the soil should 
not stick, but should roll clean from the surface, leaving a bright, 
smooth land polish. If the soil is of a type which does not scour 




well, then before going to the field clean all grease or rust from the 
surface of the bottom of the plow and polish it as bright as pos- 
sible. If the trouble is encountered in the field, clean the surface 
frequently until the trouble is remedied, that is, until the plow begins 
to scour. A wooden paddle will be found very useful for this clean- 
ing process. 

When through using a plow, the surface of the moldboard should 
be coated with axle grease or with some other rust preventive. This 
will preserve it in proper condition for use the next time. 

The Larger Plows: In using a sulky, gang, or tractor plow, 
it is of particular importance that attention be given to the various 
lever adjustments. These could be explained at great length, but 
for practical purposes the city boy going to the farm should give 
close attention to the instructions given him by the farm manager 
and when in doubt he should ask for further information rather than 
go ahead with the possibility of being in error. 

StejVdy Plowing: Sometimes an ambitious team on the plow 
may walk faster than is desirable for good work and in that case 



it should be held in to a steady pace. Plowing is a long and tedious 
job which is accomplished not by sudden spurts nor by hurrying, 
but by steady, careful work so accomplished that every square foot 
of the field is well tilled and in condition to produce its part of the 
crop. Rapid plowing is undesirable because it throws the soil out 
of its normal position and tends to leave the field undulating instead 
of in continuous, uniform furrows. 

SpI'Xial Precaution.s: Careless teamsters often leave the 
breast straps hanging while working a team on the plow, harrow, 
or other tongueless tool. When that is done the heavy iron snap 
strikes the knee every time the horse stops, often making an ugly 
sore. This is cruel heedlessness, and in all cases the breast stra]) 
should be snapped into the hame ring as if in actual use. 




Kiding Pluvv 



IS 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 16 
THE MOWER 

Mowing is a job that is almost certain to fall to the lot of the 
boy who volunteers for farm work. This is not a difficult task, but 
one that requires a good deal of care. 

Points Needing Especial Attention: i. Drive carefully, so 
that the sickle bar cuts a full swath, but do not let the inside shoe 
run onto the uncut grass, thus leaving a strip that will not be cut. 
Do not let the horses step on the uncut grass. 

2. In approaching a corner drive straight ahead until the sickle 
bar is entirely out of the uncut grass. Then turn the team carefully 
so as to start in sc[uarely. Many men who operate a mower are 
careless in turning at the corners, leaving bunches of uncut grass 
which give the field a ragged appearance. Show interest in your 
work by doing a neat job. 

3. Throzv the mower out of gear every time you stop to clear 
or adjust the sickle. Failure to observe this precaution is responsible 
for many fingers cut ofT and some ankles wounded, for when the 
machine is '"in gear" a slight movement of one of the horses will 
move the sickle enough to make an ugly cut. Never shift the gear 
lever while the machine is in motion. 

4. When working with the sickle always stand behind the sickle 
l)ar ; nez'er in front. This is a case of safety first. 

5. When you stop for any purpose during the trip across the 
field, back the team a few inches before starting again. This will 
enable the sickle to get up motion before reaching the uncut grass. 

6. The mower has many rapidly moving parts, and must be 
oiled frequently. Be sure that the oil ducts are open so that the 
oil can get down to the working parts where it is needed. Follow 
your emplover's instructions carefullv on this point. Feel of the 

I 

16 



pitman bearings occasionally, and if they seem to be getting hot, 
oil more frequently. 

7. Keep the sickle sharp. 

MOWER ADJUSTMENTS 

The following suggestions will help to keep the mower in proper 
adjustment for best work. Never attempt, however, to make radical 
adjustments of the parts of a mower or other implement without 
your employer's consent. 

Alignment: When the mower is in operation the knife and 
pitman should work in line ; the machine is then said to be aligned. 
Due to strains, or to wear in the hinge between the cutter bar and 
yoke and in the joint between the yoke and main frame, the outer 
end of the cutter bar on old machines often drops back of alignment 



''nsideShoe 




]'"ig. I. — Nonaligiiment Causes Increased Draft 

as shown by the string in Fig. i. The power from the pitman must 
then be transferred to the knife through an angle, and this, causes 
friction on the inside shoe parts, with increased draft and greater 
wear. 

A good iuethod of testing for alignment is the string method il- 
lustrated in Fig. T. The resistance on a cutter bar will cause the 
outer end to drop back an inch or so when the mower moves for- 
ward at normal speed. Thus, when the machine is standing idle 
the outer end of the bar should have a slight lead when tested with 
the cord. The usual practice is to give the outer end of a five-foot 
cutter bar about an inch lead, and a six-foot bar, about one and 
one-half inches lead. 

Many mowers are now equipped with special aligning devices. 
The operator should inspect his machine carefully to locate the 
aligning adjustment and then use it to secure lighter draft. 

a 

16 



^n/fe 




-If the Knife Is Off Center, Side-Draft 
and Inci'eased Draft Will Result 



Centering : In order that the knife sections may have the 
greatest speed when they have the most work to do, they should 
"center"; that is, at the end of the instroke and outstroke the cen- 
ter of each knife section should come to rest at the center of its 
guard. If the knife does not center, as illustrated in Fig. 2, in- 
creased draft, side-draft, 
and poorer work will re- 
sult, because one edge of 
the section fails to play past 
the ^^gt of the guard sufifi- 
clently to make a clean cut, 
but pulls the grass off in- 
stead. 

Non-centering is caused 
by carelessness in fitting a 
new pitman stick, by get- 
ting the knife rib too long 
when it is welded, or by the operator attempting to align the ma- 
chine by shortening the drag-bar. Proper centering can be re- 
established on most machines by moving the entire cutter bar to 
the left or to the right, as the case may demand. In the case 
illustrated in Fig. 2, the cutter bar should be forced to the right, or 
the knives to the left. On most machines this can be done by 
lengthening the drag-bar at the socket connection described above. 
Some mowers carry other forms of centering devices, and operators 
should locate such features. 

Side-Draft: Sharp scissors, properly adjusted, cut easily, but 
if one loosens the screw that holds the blades together, no matter 
how sharp the blades, they will spread sufficiently to wedge ma- 
terial between them instead of cutting it. This wedging, crushing 
action causes the scissors to work very much harder than when the 
l)lades are held close together. 

The cutter bar of a mower is nothing more or less than a series 
of shears. The ledger plate in each guard and the corresponding 
knife section are the blades in each pair of scissors, while the clip, 
shown in Fig. 3, takes the place of the screw to hold these two 
shearing plates in the proper relation to produce a cutting rather 
than a wedging and crushing action. But, due to wear, the knife 
sections begin to leave the ledger plates after the mower has been 
some time in use. Thus the proper shearing action of the cutting 
mechanism is destroyed ; the grass is drawn in and wedged between 
the cutting blades and, instead of being cut off easily, the stems 




Fiij. 3. — The Cutter Bar Is Simply 
Shears. Its Parts Can Be Easily 
Do Good Work with Light Draft 



a Series of 
Adjusted to 



are criislied and pulled off as the cutter bar moves to the front. 
Each of these uncut stems helps to pull back on' the cutter bar, 
causing increased draft. 

Side-draft may be caused, too, by one or more guards being 
bent up or down. When the mower leaves the factory, the guards 
and the ledger plates are exactly in line, and the operator who 

cares for light draft must 
keep them in that relation. 
Perhaps the best method 
of aligning is as follows. 
After the knife has been 
removed, place a straight 
piece of strap iron about 
^ X 13^ X 15 inches on the 
ledger plates and, using this piece as a straight edge, move it back 
and forth over the plates, noting whicli are high and which are low. 
Then drive a misplaced guard back into alignment by hitting it a 
sharp hammer blow where its stock is thick. The guards are 
malleable. If a new guard with new ledger plate has been supplied 
recently, it may set a little too high, Tn such case it is well to 
]^lace a piece of tin between the guard and cutter bar where the 
two are bolted together. 

Another common cau.se of side-draft is excessive wear on the 
underside of the lips of the clips. The faces of the clips wear away 
rapidly because there is considerable pressure upon them by the 
knife sections, as the latter tend to spread from the ledger plates. 
As the wear on these parts increases, the knife sections tend to raise 
farther from the ledger plates, until finally the same conditions will 
exist at even* guard as exists in scissors when the screw is loosened. 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 17 

THE GAS ENGINE 

Internal combustion engines produce power by burning an explosive 
inixture of fuel and air in a closed cj'linder behind a piston. Gasoline and 
kerosene are the fuels usually used in farm engines. The force of the explo- 
sion pushes the piston toward the open end of the cylinder and, by means 
of a connecting rod between the piston and the crank, turns the crank- 
shaft of the engine. Since practically all farm engines run according to the 
four-stroke cycle, and have poppet valves, only this type of engine will be 
described. 

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF AN ENGINE 

Inside of a straight, round cylinder is snugly fitted the piston. (See 
Fig. I.) The piston is shaped like a straight-sided, flat-bottomed cup. To 
make the piston a leak-proof fit in the cylinder, piston rings are provided in 
grooves extending around the piston. These rings serve the same purpose 
as the leather on the plunger of a tire pump. The piston pin is fastened cross- 
wise in the piston and to it one end of the connecting rod is pivoted. The 
other end of the connecting rod has a bearing by which it is attached to the 
crank or crank pin. As the crank shaft is turned the piston moves to and 
fro in the cylinder. The end of the cylinder further from the crank shaft is 
a confined space called the combustion chamber, because in this space the 
fuel mixture is burned. Opening into the combustion chamber is an inlet 
passage through which the fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder. The 
exhaust passage is another opening for the release of the burned gases. Each 
of these passages is closed by a poppet valve, a round disk fitting tightly 
against a circular valve seat. Each valve has a stem by which it is opened 
and closed, and which guides it to its seat. Extending into the combustion 
chamber is a spark plug (or an igniter) by which the fuel mixture is set on 
fire or ignited at the proper instant. On the crankshaft is a gear which drives 
the half-time gear. The half-time gear makes one turn while the crankshaft 
makes two turns. The half-time gear turns a cam which, through a rod or 
lever, opens the exhaust valve at the proper time. The valve is closed by a 
coiled spring around the stem. The inlet valve may be operated in the 
same way, but on farm engines the inlet valve spring is often made very weak, 
so that the valve can be opened by the suction of the piston. The ignition 
device is also timed from the half-time gear. 

CYCLE OF OPER/vTION 

Starting at the inner dead center (the position of the engine in which 
the piston is pushed furthest into the cylinder), a half turn of the flywheel 
and crankshaft moves the piston to the open end of the cylinder and greatly 
increases the space in the cylinder back of or above the piston. During 
this piston movement the inlet, valve is open and the cylinder is sucked 
full of fuel mixture. The movement of the piston from one end of its 
[ravel to the other is called a stroke. This is the first or suction stroke. 
(See A, Fig. 2.) 

At the end of the suction stroke the inlet valve closes and the piston 
moves into the cylinder, crowding the fuel mixture into the combustion 
rhamber. This crowding of the mixture into a small space, called compression. 
raises its pressure and increases the power it gives when burned. Near 
the inner dead center the compressed gas is set on fire by" an electric 
spark at the ignition device, and burns so quickly as to be called an pxpln- 



sion. The explosion produces a very high pressure against the piston. When 
the spark occurs late, or past the dead center, it is said to be retarded. 
When an engine is running at its regqlar speed the spark should occur 
slightly before the dead center so that the burning of the gas will be com- 
plete before the next stroke begins. The spark when set to ignite before 
the dead center is said to be advanced. The amount of advance varies with 
different engines, but usually is between io° and 20°. (See B, Fig. 2.) 



EXHAUST 
PISTON 



PISTON 
PIN 



I 




{ 



Fig. I. — Construction of Single-Cylinder Vertical Engine 

A& soon as the piston has reached the inner dead center on the second or 
compression stroke it starts outward on the working stroke. Because of the 
high pressure of the burned gases a strong force is exerted against the 
piston and this increases the speed of the crankshaft and flywheels. Just 
before the end of the working stroke the exhaust valve is opened and the 
burned gases escape from the cylinder, making the report which is called 
the "exhaust" of the engine. This is the third stroke of the cycle. (See C, 
Fig. 2.) 



17 



During the fourth stroke the exhaust valve remains open and the piston 
moves inward, pushing out the burned gas remaining in the cylinder. (See 
D, Fig. 2.) At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve closes and the 
engine is ready to begin another suction stroke. This series of operations, 
which is repeated over and over as long as the engine runs, is called a 
cycle, and as it occupies four strokes of the piston it is a four-stroke cycle. 
This name is often shortened to four-cycle. It is because the four strokes 
of the cycle occupy two revolutions of the crankshaft that the valves and 
ignition are operated by the half-time gear. Because power is produced during 
only one of the four strokes heavy flywheels are provided to steady the 
motion. 

CARBURETORS AND MIXING VALVES 

The fuel mixture of which we have spoken is made by spraying gasoline 
or kerosene into the stream of air as it is drawn into the cylinder by the 
motion of the piston. In the suction feed fuel mixer the air inlet is made 
rather small so that the suction in the passage will be strong enough to 



INLET 




EXHAUST 



SUCTION STROKE 



COMPRESSION STROKE 




WORKINQ STROKE 



EXHAUST STROKE 



Fig. 2. — Diagram of Four-Stroke Cycle 



lift the fuel from the tank to the spray nozzle. A check valve keeps the fuel 
from running back to the tank between suction strokes. The amount of 
fuel mixed with air is adjusted by a needle valve. (See a. Fig. 3.) 

The needle valve of a simple mixer or carburetor should be set so that 
the engine gets enough fuel to run without missing explosions or back- 
firing (a popping in the inlet pipe), but not enough to produce smoke from 
the exhaust. Accurate adjustment of the needle valve cannot be made until 
an engine is warmed up to its normal temperature. Tiny amounts of dirt or 
water in the fuel are the usual cause of mixer or carburetor trouble. 

In the float feed carburetor a float in a cup is used to maintain the fuel 
level just below the outlet of the nozzle. The nozzle and the cup are con- 
nected so that the fuel level is the same in both. As fuel flows into the cup 
the float rises, and when the level is high enough the float closes the valve 
which admits fuel from the tank to the cup. Carburetors of this type may 
be of complicated construction embodying a number of adjustments. When 
so made they are usually arranged so that the adjustments need not be dis- 
turbed in the ordinary running of the engine. The simpler ones have a 
needle valve for the regulation of the fuel flow only. (See Fig. 3, b.) 



17 



3. 



IGNITION OF THE COMPRESSED MIXTURE 

Each cylinder charge of fuel mixture must be lighted at the end of the 
compression stroke in order that it may explode and produce power. This 
lighting or ignition is done by electric sparks, which may be produced by 
either a lozu tension system or a high tension system. A low tension system 
has only one circuit, while a high tension system has two circuits. 

Low tension battery ignition is used on many farm engines. A battery 

MIXTURE TO 
CYLINDER 



BALL 
CHECK 



FUEL 
TANK 




AIR 



,i^^NEEDLE 
Jr~ VALVE 



\=^ 




Aia 



I'Si- 3- — A: Simple Mixer with Suction I'ecd. I!: I'lo.nl Feed Carburetor 

(usually five or six dry cells), a low tension spark coil (a coil of coarse, 
insulated copper wire wound around a bundle of iron wire), a inake-and- 
break igniter, and connecting wires make up this system. A switch is usually 
added for turning the ignition on and off. The igniter consists of a plate 
which is bolted over an opening into the combustion chamber, and of two 
electrodes which extend through the plate. The stationary electrode is in- 
sulated with mica washers so that current cannot pass from it to the sur- 
rounding metal, and is clamped firmly in place. The movable electrode is free 



MICA INSULATORS 



COMTACT POINTS 



MOVABLE ELECTRODE 




DRY BATTERY 



SWITCH 



Fig. 4. — Diag^"am of Low Tension Ignition System with Battery 

to turn and on its inner end has an arm which may be turned into contact 
with the stationary electrode. When the contact points o'f the electrodes come 
together and "make" the circuit, a current flows from the battery through 
the coil to the stationary electrode, then through the movable electrode to 
the metal of the engine, which is called grounding the current. The current 
flows through the metal of the engine to another wire which carries it back 
lo the other end of the battery, the switch often being connected into this 
wire. When the contact points separate, the circuit is "broken" and a spark 
occurs between the contact points as they move apart. The movable electrode 
is moved bv suitable mechanism connecting it to the half-time gear. (.See 
Fig. 4-) " 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Feirm Craft Series 



LESSON 18 
THE GAS ENGINE— Continued 

In place of the battery and coil an oscillating magneto is often used. It 
is driven from the half-time gear and is located ver>' close to the igniter, so 
that the movable electrode may be operated by the magneto shafL By elim- 
inating the batter)- and most of the connecting wires the use of an oscillating 
magneto avoids most ignition troubles and provides a verj- reliable source 
of current (See Fig. 5.) 

In high tension ignition, current of very high pressure or voltage jumps 
from a well-insulated electrode to a grounded electrode, both of which are 




rig. 5. — Oscillating Magneto Combined with Make-and-Break Igniter 

Stationary. Ttiese electrodes are made into a device called a spark plug. 
The porcelain or mica insulation of a spark plug should be kept reasonably 
clean from oil or soot. The spark points should be separated by the thick- 
ness of a worn dime at the place they are closest together. (See Fig. 6.) 
The high tension current may be delivered to the spark plug by a vibrating 
coil in connection with a battery and timer. (See Fig. 6.) The battery cur- 
rent flows from the battery through the primary Tiinding and vibrator con- 
tacts of the coil, thence by wire to the timer, which is simply a device for 
making or closing the circuit at the proper instant and which is driven by 
the half-time gear. Usually the current is grounded at the timer and flows 
from the metal of the engine through a wire and switch back to the other 

T 

18 



(.'lid ol the balti; ry. The current flowing through the coil is stopped very 
frequently by the breaking of the circuit at the contact points of the vibrator, 
which buzzes when the coil is working. The coil is so made that instead 
of making a spark at the vibrator points, where the circuit is broken, a high 



DRY CELLS 



SWITCH 




VIBRATOR BLADE 
ADJUSTING SCREW 

I'l:-:. 6. — Lefl: High Tension I 

PI^ = PorceIain Insulator 
SB = Steel Body 



GROUNDED 

CONNECTION 



SPARK PLUG 



nition with Battery and \ ibrating Coil. Riglit : Section 
of Spark Plug 
G= Gasket 
SP=Spark Points SG^rSpark Gap 



tension current is produced in the secondary winding of the coil, and this high 
tension current is led by a well-insulated ■ wire or cable to the spark plug 
where it makes a spark. 

A very reliable source of high tension current is a high tension inagneti>. 
Between the ends or poles of a set of steel permanent magnets the space is 
called a magnetic field hccause in this space magnetic forces arc strong. 




]_ l ®b-- 



I'ig. 



-Diagram of High Tension Magneto 



111 the magnetic field is a rotor which, when turned, causes the magnetic 
forces to flow first in one direction and then in the opposite direction through 
a coil or zvinding. If a winding is part of the rotor and turns with it, the 
whole is called an armature. The variation in strength and reversal of 



direction of the magnetic forces through the winding generates a current 
by electro-magnetic induction. In a true high-tension magneto the winding 
is in two parts, one of coarse wire called the primary zvinding, the other of 
line wire and much longer called the secondary zvinding, the secondary being 
connected to the primary so as to form a continuation of it. A pair of 
contact points operated by a cam provide means for short circuiting the 
lirimary winding. A condenser is connected between the contact points. As 
the rotor or armature revolves, the primary winding is short circuited until 
llie current in it reaches its maximum. The cam then separates the contact 
points, opening tiie primary circuit. As the primary current is suddenly 
stopped a high tension current is generated in the secondary winding and 
conducted to a spark plug. The distributor is a device by which the high 
tension current is directed in turn to the several spark plugs of multi-cylinder 
engines. Magneto bearings need very little lubrication, and most magneto 
troubles are due to excessive oiling. Fig. 7 shows in diagram form the con- 
struction of a high tension magneto. 

LUBRICATION OF THE ENGINE 

All working i)arts of the engine, where one piece of metal turns or slides 
in contact with another, should be lubricated with suitable oil or grease. 
The oil or grease forms a film which separates tlie parts enough to keep 
them from wearing rapidly. The oil which lubricates the cylinder and piston 
also seals the joints between the piston rings and cylinder walls and prevents 
leakage of gases past the piston. For the cylinder, only a gas engine cylinder 
oil of suitable grade should be used. Common machine oil or steam cylinder 
oil must not be used in a gas engine cylinder as either will cause damage or 
trouble. Cylinder lubrication is very important and the feeding of oil to 
the cylinder must be maintained all the time the engine is running. Grease 
cups should be filled with clean cup grease or hard oil, never with any other 
kind of grease. It •;; just as important to keep dirt out of the bearings as 
to get oil into them. 

MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINES 

Engines often have two or more cylinders. So far as tlie cycle of opera- 
tion is concerned each cylinder is a separate engine, but in construction 
some parts serve all cylinders. In tim.ing the valves and spark each cylinder 
should be considered as an engine by itself. If the wiring of an engine 
having more than one cylinder is disconnected or removed, care must be 
taken to put it back just as it was or some of the cylinders, perhaps all of 
ihem, will not get their sparks at the right time. The firing order of a 
four-cylinder engine is either 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-3. Fig- >^ shows a four-cylinder 
vertical engine. 

STARTING AN ENGINE 

Attend to lubrication, putting a drop in every oil hole, turning down 
grease cups, and setting the cylinder oiler to dripping. Be sure that there is 
fuel in the tank and sufficient water in the cooling system. Retard the 
spark, to avoid danger of the engine starting in the wrong direction, or 
"kicking back." Turn on the svv^itch. If the gasoline needle was closed 
when the engine was stojtped, open it about two complete turns. If means 
are provided for the purpose, reduce the size of the air inlet. The engine 
should now start when the crank or wheel is turned in the direction in which 
the engine is made to run. If the engine is of such size as to make it 
difficult to turn it past the compression stroke, look for means of releasing 
part or all of the compression. A priming cock or valve is usually provided, 
but sometimes an extra cam or roller is used by which the exhaust valve is 
held open to relieve the compression. If any such device is used it should 
be closed as soon as the engine starts. Some engines may be started by 
holding open the inlet or exhau'^f val\-e while slartiii;; in turn the wheels. 

3 
18 



The momentum of the turning wheels is then sufficient to overcome the 
compression when the valve is released. 

As soon as the engine starts, open the air inlet to normal size; shut the 
priming cock or other compression release, and advance the spark to run- 
ning position. Then if the needle valve has just been opened, adjust it as 
directed under "CARBURETORS." The operation of the cylinder oiler and 
the cooling system should be watched from time to time while the engine runs. 
In freezing weather the filling of the cooling system with water may be 
delayed until the engine is running smoothly, but it should not be allowed 
to get hot. 




Fig. 8. — Four-Cylinder Tractor Engine. Arrows show direction of oil movement in lubri- 
cating system 

STOPPING AN ENGINE 

If the engine has a simple mixer, close the needle valve. If a float feed 
carburetor is used, do not disturb the needle valve or other adjustment. 
Turn off the ignition switch if one is provided. Stop the dripping of the 
cylinder oiler. In cold weather drain the cooling system, being sure that no 
water remains anywhere. 

IMPORTANT POINTS. 

To avoid serious damage to the engine it is necessary to make sure that 
cylinder lubrication does not fail ; that the cylinder and piston do not 
become overheated through failure of the cooling system ; And that no 
bearing gets hot enough to smoke. Constant watch should be kept for 
loose bolts, nuts, etc. If unusual sounds, such as knocking or pounding, 
should develop, the engine should be stopped and its condition called to the 
attention of the owner or manager. 



18 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 19 
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND SUPPLIES * 

Hand Tools: Hand tools are common to every farm, and a 
little practice will make an operator proficient in their use. 

The spade (56) has a steel blade 12 inches long and a wooden 
handle. The spade is sharpened with the bastard file. The size of 



the spade is determined by the size of the blade. It should be kept 
polished, as it will then turn the earth with less labor. This tool 
may be used in digging a hole for a fence post. 



* Illustrations from unpublished material supplied by G. H. Radebaugh, 
University of Illinois. 



19 



The grass hook (59) is used for trimming the grass and weeds 
around edges of the lawn. Ihe blade may be sharpened with a 
scythe stone or grindstone. The garden trozvel (60) is useful in 
transplanting flowers, cabbage, tomato plants, etc. The hedge knife 
(61) is made of a tempered steel blade and may be sharpened on the 
grindstone and oilstone. It is used, as the name implies, for 
trimming hedges. It is also used for cutting corn fodder, etc. 

The scythe (62) will be found on every farm. Its principal use 
is for cutting weeds and for trimming close to fences. The blade is 
sharpened on a grindstone and whetted from time to time with a 
scythe stone. This puts what is called a wire edge on the blade. 

The hoe (63) is used in the cultivation of cane, corn, sugar beets, 
and vegetables. The steel blade is about 55^ inches across. The 
other hoes (64, 65, and 66) are used for cutting weeds and for 
miscellaneous hoeing operations. 

The hand cultivator (67) is very useful in the garden. Its 
principal use is to break the soil so that it will hold more moisture. 
It is used with the same action as the hoe. 

The three-tine hay fork (70) is used in the hay field; also for 
handling feed in the stable. In many sections the four-tined fork is 
the more common. 

The spading fork (71) is a garden tool used for turning over 
the ground. After using this tool, all the earth should be removed, 
and a light application of grease made to prevent rust. 

The wagon jack (73) is made from wood or steel. It is used 
to raise the wagon so that the wheel may be removed for greasing 
the axle. 

Supplies: Bolts are used where great strength is desired. If 
a bolt is used on woodwork, washers (90 and 91) should be placed 
vmder the head and nut of the bolt. The machine holts (88) have 
square, hectagon, or button heads. Carriage bolts (93) h'ave a part 
of the bolt body square near the head. This is to keep the bolt from 
turning when the nut is being tightened. The stove bolts (96) have 
cither flat or round heads, with a slot for the screw driver. As to 
sizes, stove bolts run by sixteenths from one-eighth to five-sixteenths. 
They are of special stove-bolt thread. 

Preventing Rtist: Rust is caused on iron or steel by oxidation 
due to the action of air and moisture. To prevent rust, the most 
common practice is to grease all polished parts with machine oil or 
axle grease. Sometimes salty fats are used. This is bad practice, as 
salt corrodes. the metal. Another rust preventative, especially for- 



19 



mulated for larger tools that are kept out in the weather is an appli- 
cation, while warm, of a mixture of white lead and tallow. Equal 
parts of turpentine and linseed oil may also be used. These appli- 
cations may be readily removed by scraping and wiping. 

To remove rust from steel, cover the metal with sweet oil, well 
rubbed in. Forty-eight hours afterward rub with finely pulverized, 
unslaked lime. Then polish the surface with carborundum or emery 
cloth. 

Sharpening Tools: The method of sharpening a tool is de- 
termined by its hardness. Tools may be sharpened by forging, filing, 




PUTE-5 



100 '0^ T02 



grinding, and whetting. Most hand tools are tempered so hard that 
a file will not cut them. The group of tools (63, 64, 65, 66) are of 
fairly good steel and can be sharpened with the file. Axes, hatchets, 
knives, etc., are all hard, and mnst be ground on the grindstone and 
brought to an edge with the oilstone. 

To properly sharpen tools requires experience. The beginner 
will encounter some difficulty in bringing a tool to a desired edge. 
This is accomplished: first, by grinding, then by whetting on the 
oilstone. In whetting, the motion may be back and forth or spiral. 
The tool must be held steadily on the stone. The position of hold- 

3 



19 



ing the tool is controlled by the angle at which the edge has been 
ground on the grindstone. 

A FEW PRACTICAL DONTS FOR USING TOOLS 

Don't say, "That's good enough." 

Don't use a file for a pinch bar. 

Don't use a monkeywrench for a hammer. 

Don't try to cover up your mistakes. 

Don't use a screw driver for a cold chisel. 

Don't use a file without a handle. 

Don't waste time by doing unnecessary work. 

Don't use a pipe wrench on nuts ; it burrs up the corners. 

Don't forget there is a right and wrong way to use the monkey- 
wrench. 

Don't use an open wrench that is too large for the nut. 

Don't use the axe for a sledge hammer. 

Don't use the axe for a lifting bar. 

Don't use the pocket knife for a pry ; it will snap the blade. 

Don't use a spade for a crowbar ; you may break the handle. 

Don't forget that you turn the brace to the right when drilling 
holes. 

Don't forget that pliers will not cut hardened steel wire. 

Don't forget that when you go on the farm and are asked to get 
a tool you should at least know what it looks like. 



United States Boys* Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 20 
ROPE AND ITS CARE 

There are many uses on the farm for rope in sizes running 
from a quarter inch to an inch, rarely larger, and the helper should 
know a few things about its care and use. Knots and splices are 
treated in the two following lessons, but a few fundamental facts 
should be noted in advance. 




Fig. I. — Beginning 

Taking Out the Kinks : A new rope is "full of kinks," that is, 
it easily becomes partly knotted, will not run readily through pulleys, 
and is harsh and unpleasant to handle. If it is laid for a few 
minutes in boiling water it will be greatly softened and the kinks will 
very soon work out. If this plan is followed, a new rope will at once 
behave about as well as an old one. 



20 



Protkcting the Ends : If the end of a rope is left unprotected, 
it will of course rapidly unwind and go to pieces. 1 f this is pre- 
vented by tifing a knot, then the end is always clumsy and impossible 
to thread through pulleys. The only proper way to protect the end 
of the rope is by wrapping or whipping. 




Fig, -'. — Sli-'iJ z 



i'jg. i- — iJteiJ i 



\ 


i 


1 




Fig. 4. — Step 4 



Fig. 5. — Completed 



20 



Whipping the End of a Rope: In this method for whipping 
the end of a rope, the cord (Fig. i) is placed so that end A points 
down and end B up. B is taken at C and wrapped tightly around 
the rope and both ends of the cord, leaving no space between 
adjacent windings and allowing no overlapping (Fig. 2). When a 
dozen or more wraps have been completed (Fig. 3), without putting 
an end through the loop, pull end A until the remainder of the loo]) 
is entirely pulled through (Fig. 4). Then pull tightly in opposite 
directiftns on A and B, and cut both ends off close to the wrapping 
( \ and 2), the result being a completed whip (Fig. 5). The last 
wrap should be made at least a half inch from the end of the 
rope. 

pROTKCTioN Against Pulley Weak: A bad pulley will soon 
cut out a rope which 's worth more than many pulleys, and care 
should always be exercised to insure that ropes run free over pulleys 
and are not allowed to rub against comers or other sharp surfaces. 

General Care: Tn general, ropes should be kept as clean as 
possible and allowed to dry out promptly after having been wet. 
The observance of these precautions will not only add to the length 
of the service which the rope will give, but it will also add greatly 
I0 the comfort of handling, which after all is a considerable item, 
for there are few pieces of equipment more unpleasant and unsatis- 
factory to handle than badly frayed ropes full of knots. 



20 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 21 
SOME USEFUL KNOTS 

Every boy or man should know how to tie a knot that will hold. A 
few of the simple knots that will be used almost every day on the farm arc 
shown herewith. 

The Square Knot: This is the most common knot for tying two pieces 
of rope together end to end. Fig. i shows clearly the way to make this knot. 



w- 








.,;,-,..., 


'•■ \ 






c 


^^J^mjf^ 


^^^^£^^ 


A 

wBSmm 


4 

1* , 


m 


^ 


n 


D 


^^^^Hl 




3 



Fig. I. — Square Knot 

Weaver's Knot: The weaver's knot, shown in Figs. 2 and 3, somewhat 
similar to the square knot, is tied by throwing a bight AC in one end, 
bringing end B through this bight at i, and throwing a loop at D. As both 




Fig. 2. — Weaver's Knot 
I 



viidb A and B (Fig. 3), cdii be made to point backward when passing llirougli 
an opening, the weaver's knot is the best method of fastening the ends of 
binder twine together. 







- -- 




A 








— --^^3^^^ 






c^^^_^ 






(ij^t^F^ •/ ii^i<tf-''*^O^M 






i8i@HI 


m. 


'-*'v ^ "^ 


i,,^^ 


%Js^ 


ms 





Fig. 3. — Weaver's Knot 

Bowline Knot : The bowline knot is one of the most useful to know, 
as with it a loop that will not slip can be tied in. the end of a rope, and yet 
the knot itself can easily be untied. One method of tying this knot is shown 
in Figs. 4 to 7 inclusive. The important point to observe in tying this knot 
is to see that end A (Fig. 4), is put through loop i from the same side as 
rope C, in order to bind the knot together when A is brought around C 
and back through loop i. 




I'ig. 4. — Beginning 



Fig. S-— Step 



21 



Bowline Knot 
2 



Double Bowline: An effective way to tie a knot in the middle of a 
rope, which will not slip, is the double bowline method illustrated in Figs. 
8 to II inclusive. Tie an ordmary overhand knot as B (Fig. 8), throw 
bight A up to C, as shown in Fig. 9, and pull the two ropes at D down 
to the position shown in Fig. 10. 




Fig. 6. — Step 3 Fig. 7. — ^Completed 

Bowline Knot 




Fig. 8. — Beginniiiij; Fig. 9. — Step 3 

Double Bowline Knot 

3 



Grain Sack Knot : A quick way to fasten grain sacks securely is shown 
in Figs. 12 and, 13. Strictly speaking, no knot is tied, but by passing the ends 
under the string, one part is made to bind the other. A little practice in 
order to learn the proper procedure will enable anyone to tie sacks very 
rapidly. 




■^W: 




M 




.^mk 




'^^^m 




'\J 





Fig. 10.— Step 3 Fig. II. — Completed 

Double Bowline 




Fig. 12. — Beginning Fig. 13. — Completed 

Grain Sack or Miller's Knot 



21 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 22 
SPLICING A ROPE 

There arc several methods of splicing rope, the most common being the 
short splice, a description of which follows : 




Fig. I. — Beginning 









^^. 






i ^^L 


^j^^---r 




^fgf^ n 


P^MffWlk^BR^i^^pip^PlllfS^p^i^^lgl 


WSSSB^SI^' 


k^^S«v 






\^ B* 




j ^ 


v% 





22 



Fig. 2. — Step 2 
I 



Short Splice: To make a short splice, untwist the ends (Fig. i), and 
lay them together (Fig. 2), so that no two strands of the same rope lie next 
to each other, that is, strand B is between strands E and F, strand A between 
E and D, strand E between B and A, etc. The short splice is simply a 
weaving of the ends over and under the strands of the rope, as shown in 




Fig. 4. — Step 4 
Fig. 3. End B is put over E and under D, coming out at right angles to 
the same. For the next step the two ropes are turned one-third of the 
way around as indicated by the arrow (Fig. 3), and end A woven over 
strand D and under strand F and to the left of strand B, a.s shown in 
Fig. 4. Again, the rope is turned one-third of the way around in the 

22 ^ 



direction of the arrow (Fig. 4), bringing end C on top, which, as shown 
in Fig. 5, is woven over F and under E, and to the left of end A, which 
had previously been put over strand E. It will be noticed that in this weav- 
ing, the end being worked goes over the strand which the end just previ- 
ously used goes under. When all three strands have been woven in once, 




Fig. 5. — Step 5 




Fig. 6. — Step 6 

as shown in Fig. 5, it is necessary, in order to have a good splice, to pull 
them tight, as shown in Fig. 6, so that there is no slack at point G. Then 
take ends D, E and F and weave them in exactly as was done with B, A 
and C, except they are woven into the other rope, and pull them tight, which 
will result in tlie partial splice shown in Fig. 7. 



22 




Fig. 7. — ^Step 7 



I 




Fig. 8. — Completed 



To obtain the completed splice shown in Fig. 8, each set of ends should 
be woven nnder and over from 3 to 8 times, depending upon the size of 
the rope. 

I.ENOTH OF Ends For Short Splice 



Diameter rope 


T 


onglh of 


en 


A9. 


Times 


to 


weave each en 


%" 




6" 










3 


!4" 




4" 










3 


J'i 




8" 










4 


1 " 




10" 
12" 










4 
6 






14" 
16" 










C 
8 



22 



United States Boys* Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 23 
PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED 

The object in preparing the ground for seeding is to provide 
the conditions necessary to the germination of the seed and to the 
life of the seedling. 

Conditions of Gerimtnation : There arc two conditions of 
germination : 

1. Heat 

2. Aloisturc 

If seeds are moist but cold, they will rot and die. On the other 
hand, if they are dry, whatever the temperature, they will lie 
dormant; and if they dry out after they have sprouted, the young 
])lants will be killed. The farmer must depend upon the season for 
the proper temperatures, but he must so prepare his seed bed as 
to protect the young plants from drying out. 

If the Furrows Were Flat : One might think that after good 
plowing the furrows would lie flat like books upon a table or like the 
boards of the floor. If that were true, then all that would be needed 
in preparing a seed bed would be to pulverize an inch or two of the 
top. But the matter is not so simple as that. 

How Furrows Actually Lie: Furrow^s do not lie flat. The 
furrow has thickness as well as width, and on that account when 
it rolls off the moldboard of. the plow it tends to stand on edge, and 
would stand exactly on edge if it were as thick as it is wide. But it 
is only six to eight inches thick, while it is twelve to eighteen inches 
in width, so that it tips over, lapping upon the last furrow by about 
its thickness. Hence the furrows of a plowed field lie the one upon 
the other like the siding of a house, or like a series of books lying 
upon the table with one edge of each resting upon its neighbor. 

The Bottom oi- the Furrow: Arrange some books as ju$t 
described and note that under each book is a triangular space as 
thick as the neighboring book and running to a point. This gives 
a good idea of what you would see if you could look under the fur- 
rows of a plowed field. In practice, more or less soil rattles down 
into these spaces, but they are never filled in plowing, and on sod 
ground they are fully open. 

I 

23 



Danger from Vacant vSpaces: If now the surface of the field 
should be prepared and the seed should be sown or planted with 
these spaces left open, the first heavy rain would gradually fill them 
up by washing in the soil from above. But this would wash out 
many tender roots of the young plants and expose others to rapid 
drying out as soon as the rain is over, for these spaces are, theo- 
retically at least, from four to six inches deep. If all the roots arc 
exposed, of course the plant will die; if only a portion are killed, the 
plant may not die but it will have a stunted growth. This is one 
of the commonest causes of a "bad stand" in the fields of those 
farmers who do not practice the best methods, and it is the reason 
why the good farmer is very particular as to the fitting of the seed 
bed. 

Fitting the Under Side of the Furrow : These spaces under 
the furrow must be filled up before it is worth while to pay much 
attention to the surface of the field. No surface harrow will run 
deep enough to do this work. Some farmers depend upon the roller 




Fig. I. — Graphic represeiitatioii of the manner in which fiiirows overlap each other 
with open spaces below. The filling of these spaces is the first step in fitting the seed bed. 

to press the furrow down, but it is not a case of pressing down ; 
it is a case of filling up. Besides, any roller which a team can draw 
in plowed ground will have little effect, especially upon sod. The 
best tool for this work is the disk harrow, set almost straight and 
driven lengthivise of the furrow in the same direction in which the 
plowing was done. The slicing effect of the disks will rapidly fill 
any subsurface spaces, after which the soil will not be disturbed 
by rains. It is then safe to prepare the surface for planting. Some 
farmers even disk the land before plowing to make this work still 
more effective. 

Work Deceptive: The chances are about even that your 
farmer may not do this job in the way described, for it is one of 
the newer practices, the reason for which is evident to any one who 
considers carefully what really happens in plowing. 

Of course, you will follow directions and do the work as your 

z 

23 



employer desires it done, but one reason why some farmers will 
not take pains to fit the bottom of the furrow as it ought to be fitted 
is that the work which is actually being done in slicing the furrows 
with a disk is out of sight and does not seem to be getting ahead. 
Many farmers want to "see the dirt move,"' and such will probably 
use the roller, believing that they are actually pressing the furrows 
down ; or perhaps they may go at the surface at once, leaving the 
l)Ottoms of the furrows to fake care of themselves. If your farmer 
is of this kind, then do the best you can, even though you believe you 
know a better way. 

FfNiSHiNc THK SuRFACR : When the spaces beneath the furrows 
are well filled, v^hich is usually accomplished by going once over the 
Jicld, sometimes "lapping half,'' then the surface should be ''finished" 




Fig. 2. — Driving plan to avoid driv'iiig crosswise of the furrows in fitting the surface 
seed bed with a floating harrow. 

or prepared for seeding. This is done by the floating harrow — 
made in various designs, but covering a wide space, often as mucn 
as twelve or sixteen feet — working the soil for fineness rather than 
for depth. 

How TO Drive THE Fi.oating Harrow : The surface cannot be 
smoothly finished by continuing to drive lengthwise of the furrow, 
as was done with the disk. To drive crosswise of the furrows, 
however, would be to drive against the lap at least half the time, 
and this should never be done until the furrows are well worked 
down, for it will so loosen the edges as to injure the seed bed, and 
in sod ground grass will grow up between the furrows. 



?•» 



Driving Dix\gonally: The best method of avoiding this diffi- 
culty is to drive diagonally, or cornerwise, of the field. There arc 
two ways of doing this: 

1. Begin at one corner and drive across the corner at an angle 
of about 45 degrees, backward and forward, until the field is cov- 
ered. This method has its drawbacks because it is difficult to turn 
squarely about with a wide harrow. 

2. A better way is to begin at one corner of the field and drive 
direct to the corner diagonally opposite, say, from A to C in a field 
whose corners shall be lettered A, B, C, D. Then return and drive 
back to the starting point, down the opposite side, across the end, 
and so on again and again. The short corner gradually lengthens 
and the long side grows shorter until soon you will be driving around 
a rectangular block constantly growing longer on one side and 
shorter on the other. The work is completed by a long "bout" 
between corners B and D. The actual driving plan is shown in 
Fig. 2. 

Clearly, the field will be harrowed twice when it has been gone 
over once by this method of driving, but it is better than "lapping 
half," because no turn is over 45 degrees — an angle that is easily 
and quickly taken in driving; besides, in this way the driver is 
always turning away from the fence. 

Finishing the Seed Bed: This surface work should be con- 
tinued until a fine, even tilth is produced. In dry weather and on 
clay land it is possible to overdo the fining process, for if clay is 
too finely pulverized it will run together when it becomes wet and 
bake when it dries out again. 

A few lumps on top of the ground are not bad. providing they 
are really on the surface and not a part of the seed bed. 

When plowing in extremely dry weather, land should be har- 
rowed about as fast as it is plowed, partly because the lumps break 
up easily when first plowed up, and partly because ground that is 
harrowed will hold whatever moisture it has better than if it is left 
to bake in the sun with lumps and spaces exposed to the drying air. 



23 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 24 
CULTIVATION 

As the preparation of the seed bed is done with a view to secur- 
ing the conditions of germination, so should the after cultivation be 
done with a view to securing and maintaining the conditions of 
groivth. 

The Condtttons of Growth : Now the absohite conditions of 
growth are : 

1. Heat. 

2. Moisture. 

3. Plant food. 

4. Sunlight. 

It will be noted that the first two conditions are identical with 
those of germination. To these must be added food, for plants 
like animals must have the materials with which to build up their 
tissues; and sunlight, for it is only in the presence of light that 
jjlants can take in the carbon which comes from the air and which 
is their principal food. 

As in the case of germination, the season must be depended 
upon to supply the heat, though good drainage will help. Plant food 
is mainly a matter of fertile soil or of the addition of manures and 
fertilizers, and yet, if weeds are allowed to flourish they will steal 
the food that should go into the crops. They will also take the 
moisture, and what is even worse than either, they will in many 
cases overtop, the young seedling, shutting of!" the sunlight. To a 
very considerable degree, therefore, we depend upon good cultiva- 
tion to maintain the conditions of growth, chiefly, but not solely, by 
controlling the weeds. 

On.TF.rTS OF CuLTiv.\Tiox : The direct objects of cultivation 
are: 

1. The control of weeds. 

2. Aeration of the soil. 

3. Conservation of moisture. 

. I 

24 



Control of Weeds: Weeds are the natural and ever-present 
enemy of the crop. They are better rustlers than crops or they 
would not be weeds. They are the greatest of all thieves, and strangle 
where they cannot steal. If a young crop is to yield up both its 
moisture and its food to some robustious weed and have its supply 
of sunlight cut off as well, how can it thrive? The only answer is 
that it cannot thrive, and the farmer who expects a crop must control 
the weeds. 

Of course the best way to kill weeds is by preventing as many 
as possible from seeding, but even so there will be plenty for every 
crop. Their seeds will germinate with those of the crop and the 
two will come along together, the weed generally the faster of the 
two, which mean-s that one crop competes with many different kinds 
of weeds. 

The best time to kill weeds is when they have just sprouted. 
They can be killed then by the millions, and before they have done 
damage, by the simple process of stirring the soil; whereas, if left 
to become firmly rooted they are much more difficult to uproot and 
they have alreaxly done more or less damage. Early culfivalion is 
therefore the attempt of all good farmers. 

But thorough cultivation is equally necessary, for if five or ten 
percent of the weeds are missed, there will still be about as many 
as could have stood the natural competition with each other, and 
plenty enough will be left to ruin or at least greatly reduce the crop. 
Right here the helper must understand that if the farmer loses ten 
percent or even six percent of his crop he has lost all of his profit. 
The cultivation therefore must be thorough as well as early. 

Some weeds, like Canada thistle, quack grass, and morning glory, 
maintain themselves by underground root stalks or bulbs, and are 
much more difficult to keep out than are those which multiply by 
seeds. But any weed is bad enough, and the helper must understand 
that they are the farmer's worst enemy and' the principal cause for 
cultivation. 

Cultivation for Aeration: To insure a good growth of crops the 
air must circulate freely in the soil, not only to supply the roots 
with oxygen, but also to assist nitrification, whicli is one of the 
bacterial processes necessary to produce the supply of nitrogen. In 
loose soils cultivation would not be needed for the purpose of 
aeration, but it is often essential in tight and stubborn clays. 

Cultivation to Save Moisture: In rare cases and to some slight 
extent, cultivation may save moisture by breaking up the crust that 

a 



S4 



tends to form on clay soils after a rain. Cultivation for this purpose 
should he very shallow, turning up as little of the soil as possible. 

All Cultivation Bad for Crops: Cultivation for any purpose 
whatever, if thorough enough to be effective, is bound to injure the 
crops by cutting off a good many of the small roots on which the 
life of the plants depends. Besides this, there will be some injury 
by treading out and uprooting, especially in turning at the ends of 
the rows. These injuries must all be reduced to a minimum, and 
plants which are accidentally covered tip by cultivation should be 
carefully uncovered. 

Altogether, we may say that if seed should be planted in a loose 
moist soil absolutely free from weeds, the farmer would do better 
to keep entirely out of the field till harvest time. By this is meant 
that when the farmer cultivates his crop he chooses between two 
evils ; one, the injury, which may be kept small ; the other, the weeds, 
which if left alone would take the crop. Remembering all that is 
involved, therefore, good workmanship in cultivation consists in 
doing as thorough a job a^ possible in killing iveeds, imth as little 
injury as possible to the growing crop. 



»* 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 25 

INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES 

Weeds are not the only enemies of the crops which the farmer 
raises. ]\Iany insects make their living at the expense of the farmer, 
and several low forms of vegetable life are parasitic on some of the 
most important crops. 

INSECT ENEMIES 

Manner of Insect Injuries: There are three ways in which 
insects may injure or destroy crops: 

1. By gnawing their leaves to such an extent as to check the 
growth and sometimes to . kill the crop. Examples : The ami)- 
worm, the canker worm, the striped beetle, and the potato bug, 
more properly the potato beetle. 

2. By sucking the juices of the plant. Examples : Plant lice 
or aphids of any kind (especially the corn root louse), the chinch 
bug of the wheat and corn fields, and the San Jose scale attacking 
fruit trees. 

3. By laying the egg in places where, after hatching, the young 
larva works havoc. Examples : The curculio of the plum, the borer 
of the peach tree, and the hessian fly at the base of the wheat stem. 

Combating Insect Enemies: In general, insects do their prin- 
cipal damage because of their immense numbers and inconceivably 
rapid multiplication. For example, a single com root louse, as 
reported by Dr. Forbes, has been known to produce no fewer than 
ninety-eight young during her lifetime, and sixteen generations have 
been known in a single season. At half the rate. Dr. Forbes com- 
putes that this would make a solid column one acre square, and, if 
it could stand without crushing, nearly four hundred miles high. 
Fortunately natural causes intervene to prevent maximum reproduc- 
tion, but even so mankind is constantly in danger of starvation by 
his insect enemies. As one would suppose, the greatest protection 
is in preventing so far as possible their multiplication, for when 
once at work their control is costly and laborious, if indeed it is 
possible. The best ways of combating insects arc : 

I, B\< birds, which live largely on insect life. This involves 
killing all stray cats, which invariably live on birds, and such pets 

I 

2S 



as have formed the bird-eatiug habit. Cats have been known to de- 
stroy more than fifty birds apiece in one season. Without the birds, 
mankind would soon be starved out by the insects, and any menace 
to the birds should be effectively combated. It is extremely difficult 
in the case of cats because of sentiment, but, even so, sentiment 
must be rationalized. The unfortunate habit of abandoning kittens 
by the roadside to hunt or starve has caused most districts to become 
inhabited with thousands of practically wild cats which live almost 
wholly upon birds. They are difficult to find because they hunt 
mostly at night. 

2. By poison foods, such as poisoned meal for army worms. 

3. By poison sprays or powders, which are destructive of insects 
that gnaw and chew the foliage. 

4. By spray materials that kill by contact. These are used for 
plant lice and, in general, for many insects that live by sucking 
juices and cannot therefore be killed by poison. 

5. By trapping and collecting, which is effective with insects 
that travel, like the chinch bug and the grasshopper. 

The method and the material will be supplied by the farmer. 
The duty of the helper is to follow directions and do a good job, 
with a full understanding of the importance of controlling insect 
depredations at once — at once, for twenty-four hours may be too 
late. 

FUNGOUS INJURIES 

Fungous injuries are in general similar to those of insects that 
gnaw the foliage or suck the juices of plants, in that they destroy 
plant tissue or weaken the plants. 

Fungi differ from insects in that they are plants instead of ani- 
mals. Plants though they are, however, they elaborate no food of 
their own. They are therefore independent of sunlight. Pene- 
trating into the very tissues of the host plant, these smuts, rusts and 
molds live a wholly parasitic life and in general they are extremely 
difficult to get at after they have entered the plant. Indeed, it is 
often next to impossible to control some of them, as for example 
the smut of com. 

TREATMENT 

The attempt to control the depredations of insect and fungous 
enemies has given rise to an elaborate system of treatment of various 
kinds under the general head of spraying, a subject which will be 
treated briefly in the next I'esson. 

The scab of potatoes and the smut of wheat, oats and barley are 
treated by special methods briefly described as follows : 

Potato Scab : If seed potatoes are soaked for one and a half 
hours in water to which corrosive sublimate has been added in the 
proportion of one ounce to eight gallons, the crop will be free from 
scab, provided the potatoes are planted on land that has not pre- 

2 

2B 



viously produced a crop of scabby tubers. This is a good disin- 
fectant for common use upon the hands, but it must be remembered 
that corrosive subhmate is a dangerous poison. 

Smut: Wheat, oats, and barley are all attacked by the smut 
fungus, but if the seed be properly treated with formaldehyde (to 
be^ had in almost any drug store) the crop will be clean. There are 
two general methods : soaking and sprinkling. 

The Soaking Method: 

I. Provide one barrel or tank and two tubs or half barrels. 
Make a two-inch hole through the side of each in such a way that 
the bottom of the hole will be level with the bottom of the tub. Tack 
a small piece of wire screening inside the tubs over the holes in 
order that the wheat may not run out when the plugs are removed. 




Fig. I.- 



-The Soaking-Skiniming Method Is the Most Satisfactory for the Prevention of 
Stinking Smut of Wheat and Barley 



2. Place one tub on a small table or pair of horses with the 
plug directly above the other tub on the floor. 

3. Prepare the formaldehyde solution (one pint of formalin in 
thirty-five gallons of water), in the third barrel or tank, and fill the 
upper tub half or two-thirds full.* 

4. Pour into this solution about a bushel of grain. 

5. Stir the grain thoroughly so that all the smutted kernels may 
rise to the top of the solution. 

6. Skim off the smut balls and light kernels that float on the 
surface. 



26 



♦One pint of formalin in 20 gallons of water is sometimes used. 

3 



7- y\fter from five to ten minutes, or when all the smut balls 
have been removed, pull the plug and allow the solution to drain 
into the lower tub. 

8. Dump the grain on a clean tloor or canvas. 

9. Lift the lower tub upon the table, add enough solution to 
replace that removed by the grain, and repeat the operation. 

10. After dumping five or six batches in one pile, cover with a 
canvas for two hours. 

11. Uncover and spread out the grain so that it will dry quickly. 

The Sprinkling Method: 

1. Spread the grain to l)e treated on a clean floor or canvas. 

2. Sprinkle with the formaldehyde solution (one pint of 40- 
percent formaldehyde in 35 gallons of water) using approximately 
one gallon to each bushel of grain. 

3" Shovel the grain over several times to make sure that all Ihe 
kernels are wet. 

4. Place the grain in a pile and cover witii a canvas or tarpaulin 
for two hours. 

5. Spread out the grain so that it will dry quickly. 





Fig. 2. — Treating Seed by the Sprinkling Method Requires from Two-Thirds to One Gallon 
of the Formaldehyde Solution to Each Bushel of Grain 



25 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 26 
SPRAY MIXTURES AND THEIR APPLICATION 

A great many kinds of insects and fungous diseases may be controlled 
by spraying. Each class of enemy, however, must be treated with the kind 
of spray material best suited to its control. It is not possible to kill sucking 
insects by the same treatment that would be effective against chewing insects, 
on account of the difference in their feeding habits. 

KINDS OF SPRAY MATERIALS 

Stomach Poisons: Stomach poisons used for the control of chewing 
insects include arsenate of lead (in paste or powdered form), Paris green, 
and in some special cases, white hellebore. The active principle in arsenate 
of lead and Paris green is arsenic. Since arsenate of lead paste is about 
50 percent water, the dry or powdered form is twice as strong, pouifd for 
pound, as the paste. Paris green contains about four times as much arsenic 
as does the paste arsenate of lead. Smaller quantities of the stronger 
poisons are used in making up spray mixtures. Arsenate of lead is less 
likely to injure the plants than is Paris green, and a large quantity of 
actual arsenic may be used in this form without danger of foliage injury. 

Paris green and arsenate of lead are mineral poisons and retain their 
poisonous properties indefinitely, even though exposed to the air. White 
hellebore, on the other hand, is a vegetable poison (being the ground root 
of a plant), and it rapidly loses its poisonous properties when exposed to 
the air. It is used particularly for spraying currant bushes for the control 
of the currant worm, when the fruit is nearly ripe, and also for the control 
of cabbage worms on cabbage that are nearly mature. 

Contact Insecticides : These are used for the control of sucking insects. 
They include a number of different mixtures, but the most effective ones 
are lime sulfur solution and tobacco compounds. The lime sulfur is used 
for the control of scale insects, and the tobacco compounds for the control 
of aphids. Persons having large commercial orchards provide themselves 
with the necessary equipment, and manufacture their own lime sulfur. How- 
ever, unless large quantities are to be used, it is more convenient to pur- 
chase the commercial lime sulfur solution, since no special equipment is 
needed to prepare this for spraying. Likewise, it is possible to make a 
decoction of tobacco from tobacco stems or other tobacco refuse. How- 
ever, the strength of the material made in this way is exceedingly variable, 
and much more certain and satisfactory results can be secured from spraying 

I 
26 



witli the commercially prepared tobacco compounds. The form most com- 
monly used at present is nicotine sulfate. One of the most popular brands 
of this material is known as Black Leaf 40. 

The most widely used material for the control of fungous diseases is 
Bordeaux mixture. This is made from copper sulfate, lime, and water. 
For some special purposes a dilute lime sulfur mixture is used as a fungi- 
cide. This is the same material as is used for the control of '^'■i'<^ tnsects, 
but as a fungicide it is used in much more dilute form. 

Caution : The precaution should be taken to place a POISON label on 
all packages or receptacles containing the supplies for making spray ma- 
terials. This is especially important in the case of dry arsenate of lead, 
since it is a white powder that might easily be mistaken for some otlitr 
material. 

Formulas: To make effective spray mixtures, tiie materials must be 
mixed in the proper proportions. Some plants are easily injured if a mix- 
ture is slightly too strong. It is also true that the treatment of some ene- 
mies requires stronger mixtures than are efficient against others. The pro- 
portions given in the following tables represent mixtures that will be effec- 
li\c in the majority of cases. Tf a large amount of spraying is to be done, 
ii is convenient to mix the material in fifty-gallon or barrel lots. For small 
giuden operations, however, a bucketful of material is often all that will 
b? needed at a given time. The accompanying tables, therefore, give the 
qu;i.ntities for both fifty-gallon and for three-gallon lots. 

Stomach Poisons 

■ 

Barrel Lots: 

Paris green I oz. to 50 gals, water 

Arsenate of lead (powder) i lb. to 50 gals, water 

-Vrsenate of lead (paste) -' lb. to 50 gals, water 

White hellebore i lb. to 50 gals, water 

Huchct Lots: 

Paris green .' l\ oz. to 3 gals, water 

Arsenate of lead (powder) ^ i oz. to 3 gals, water 

Arsenate of lead (paste) 2 oz. to 3 gals, water 

White hellebore i oz. to 3 gals, water 

Con tact J js; skcticiuis 

Barrel Lots: 

. ;Lime sulfur solution 5 .yal- to -^5 gals, water 

Nicotine sulfate -V5 pt. to 50 gals, water 

})itcket Lots: 

Lime sulfur solution 1 '/; qt. to 3 gals, water 

Nicotine sulfate _'/5 fluid oz. to 3 gals, water 

FUNGICIOKS 

Barrel Lots: 

1 ime sulfur solution 1 ■ :^ gal. to 50 gals, water 

I'ordeaux mixture: 

Lime 4 lbs. 

Copper sulfate \ lbs. 

Water S'^ gals. 

26 



Bucket Lots: 

Lime sulfur solution !?•. ql. to 3 gals, water 

Bordeaux mixture : 

Lime \ oz. 

Copper sulfate 4 oz. 

Water 3 gals. 

HOW TO PREPARE THE MIXTURES FOR SPRAYING 

Arsenate ok Leah anh Paris Green : To prepare either of these materials 
for spraying, all that is necessary is to mix the material thoroughly with 
the required quantity of water. However, in order that this may be done 
readily, it is necessary first to mix the powder or paste with a small quantity 
of water until a thin, smooth paste is obtained. This thin paste may then 
be stirred into the full quantity of water and a uniform mixture secured. 
When Paris green is used, a small quantity of slaked lime, representing 
about double the weight of Paris green itself, is thoroughly mixed with the 
l^aris green in making up the paste before it is added to the full quantity 
of water. 

Lime Sulfur Solution and Nicotine Sulfate: These are prepared for 
spraying merely by measuring out the required quantity of solution, pouring 
it into the required amount of water, and thoroughly stirring. 

Bordeaux Mixture: The preparation of this spray is a somewhat more 
elaborate process. The copper sulfate is purchased in crystal form and 
must be dissolved in water before it can be used. The best method of 
dissolving the copper sulfate is to suspend it in a cloth sack near the top 
of a deep receptacle of water. Several hours are required to effect complete 
solution. It is best to dissolve the copper sulfate in a definite quantity of 
water so that the strength of the solution will be known; one pound of 
copper sulfate to one gallon of water is the usual proportion. The copper 
sulfate solution should be thoroughly stirred before any of it is measured out 
for making Bordeaux mixture. 

The lime used in making Bordeaux mixture should be fresh stone lime. 
Dehydrated lime is not satisfactory. The lime should be carefully slaked 
in a small quantity of water, care being taken, however, to add sufficient 
water from time to time during the slaking process to prevent the lime 
from burning. After the slaking process has been completed, the lime should 
be diluted with water until one gallon of the mixture represents one pound 
of lime. 

The solution of copper sulfate and the slaked lime will keep indefinitely 
provided they are covered to prevent evaporation of water. Whenever it 
is desired to make up a batch of Bordeaux mixture, all that is necessary is 
lo measure out the required quantity of copper sulfate solution and dilute 
it to half the volume of the proposed quantity of Bordeaux mixture, and 
also to measure out and dilute the proper quantity of lime in a like manner; 
and then to pour the two dilute solutions together, stirring them thoroughly 
as they are being poured into a third receptacle. 

Combined Mixture: If chewing insects and fungous diseases both at- 
tack plants at the same time, it is advisable to use a combined mixture of 
Bordeaux and arsenate of lead or Paris green for the control of the two 
enemies. In case the combined mixture is to be made, the arsenate of lead 

3 

26 



or the Paris green is stirred into the dihited lime before it is combined with 
the copper sulfate. Arsenate of lead may be combined also with dilute lime 
sulfur solution if desired. 

Machinery for Applying Spray Mixtures: For applying spray mix- 
tures to a few small plants in the home garden, no elaborate apparatus is 
required. Even a whisk broom may be made to serve the purpose when the 
material is to be applied to only a few small plants. An ordinary v^ratering 
can with a fine hose is also a satisfactory implement for applying spray 
mixtures to low-growing plants. However, a watering can is rather wasteful 
of material, and a more economical and uniform application may be made 
by the use of some form of spray pump which will deliver the liquid with 
more force. A compressed-air knapsack sprayer is very satisfactory for 
applying spray materials to low plants in relatively small areas. For use 
in market gardens and in plantations of trees, a barrel spray pump is more 
satisfactory than a smaller outfit. For large areas of special crops, geared 
power sprayers and gasoline power sprayers make more rapid work possible. 

How TO Spray: It is exceedingly important that'spraying be done very 
thoroughly. The aim should be to cover all parts of the plant to be pro- 
tected, with a thin, uniform application of spray material. Care should 
be taken to avoid putting an excessive amount of material on any part of 
the plant, as vt^ell as to avoid leaving any part of the plant unreached by 
the spray. A uniform application can be made much more readily and 
over-spraying avoided if a fine, rather than coarse, spray is used. A fine 
spray is made by using a nozzle with a small orifice and using high pres- 
sure. The person who holds the spray nozzle should keep it in motion 
continuously rather than hold it steadily at any given point. 

When to Spray : It is also important that spraying be done at the right 
time. In general it is better to spray before serious damage to the plants 
has occurred, rather than after the insect or disease has gained headway. 
In the case of insects or diseases which usually attack a given crop at a 
certain season of the year, it is often possible to apply the spray before the 
enemy is visible. This is true in spraying apples for the control of codling 
moth and apple scab. It is also true, in general, for the control oi many 
fungous diseases, such as potato blight, leaf spot of tomatoes, and black 
rot of grapes. In fact, effective control of fungous diseases involves antici- 
pating the attack and having the spray material on the plants before they 
are attacked by the disease. 

For the control of scale insects it is necessary to use so strong a mix- 
ture that if it were applied to the plants while they were in foliage, it would 
seriously injure them. Since the scale insects work upon the bark and arc 
present on the twigs during the dormant season, it is possible to kill them 
by using a concentrated spray mixture applied while the trees are dormant. 
Spraying for scale insects may therefore take place either late in the fall 
after the foliage has dropped from the trees, or very early in the spring 
before the season's growth begins. 



26 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 27 
CULTIVATING CORN 

It is an old saying that the time to begin cultivating corn is before 
it is planted, which is one way of emphasizing the need of a 
thoroughly prepared seed bed. 

HARROWING 

The weeds that infest the corn belt are rapidly growing species 
and it is frequently unwise to wait to begin cultivation until the corn 
is four or five inches tall, the height required for using the culti- 
vator. 

Accordingly it is a common practice to run a floating harrow of 
the spike-toothed variety over the land as the corn is coming up, 
without regard to the hills of corn except to keep the horses off the 
rows. This work would seem to be ruinous to the crop, but as a 
matter of fact the injury is slight, due to the fact that before corn 
leaves show much above the ground the roots have already become 
quite long and firmly established in the soil. The young corn plants 
are therefore not easily uprooted either by the harrow or by the 
wire-toothed weeder that is sometimes used. However that fact 
furnishes no excuse for reckless driving. 

CULTIVATION 

The corn cultivator proper is driven down the row, cultivating 
both sides at once. On some farms two-row cultivators are in use. 

To handle the cultivator requires skill in driving and undivided 
attention to business. A careless man or boy can cover up or plow 
up a good many corn plants in the course of a day's work, and every 
plant thus destroyed means one ear less at harvest time. Since it 
takes only one-hundred to one-hundred-and-twenty ears to make a 
bushel, and there are two to four stalks in every hill, you can see 
that with corn at a dollar and a half a bushel a few days' careless 
work on your part may cost your employer more than your entire 
summer's work is worth to him. Not only does every corn plant 
destroyed mean a loss to your employer, but it also means one ear 
of corn less to convert into meat. 

Corn is usually "checked," that is. planted in hills, so that the 

I 

27 



rows run both ways across the field. The corn is first cultivated in 
the same direction that it was planted. The second cultivation is 
across the field, at right angles to the first. After the first two cul- 
tivations all the ground in the field has been stirred except a small 
spot a few inches square around each hill. 

The weeds and grass in the hill must be killed while they are 
small by covering them at the first two cultivations. Labor is so 
scarce and high-priced in this country that it is not profitable to hoe 
corn or pull the weeds from the hills. If they escape the cultivator 
they will use much moisture and plant food that would otherwise be 
used by the corn plant in the production of valuable grain. 

It takes a considerable degree of skill and care to cover the weeds 
in the hill without covering the corn or digging it up. Even with 
the best of care you will cover a corn plant occasionally. When this 
happens, stop the team and uncover it carefully. Often this can be 
done with a long stick and without getting off the cultivator seat. 
Do not forget that if one hill in a hundred is covered up or cut out, 
one percent of the crop is gone, and five or six percent represents 
a very respectable profit. 

Adjusting the Cultivator: Next to a careful operator, the 
most important factor in good corn cultivation is a properly ad- 
justed cultivator. Your employer will show you how to adjust the 
particular kind of cultivator you are to use. The following direc- 
tions should be studied carefully before you go to the farm, how- 
ever, for if you are familiar with these general principles you will 
"get the hang"' of operating a cultivator much more quickly. 

Kinds of Cultivators: Two common types of riding culti- 
vators used in the corn belt are the surface, or "gopher blade" cul- 
tivator, and the shovel cultivator. 

The Surface Cultivator: The surface blade cultivator was 
introduced for shallow cultivation and to prevent cutting roots. It 
is a very successful implement when properly set and used under 
the right soil conditions. It is not entirely satisfactory in stony 
fields, in fields where the weed growth has reached considerable 
height, or where the soil gets very hard and breaks up into clods. 

The following points will help in adjusting the surface culti- 
vator properly: 

1. If there is a difference between the inside and outside blades 
in length or shape, care should be taken always to place the proper 
set on the inside shanks. On all the old surface cultivators the top 
edge of each inside blade tapers off toward the rear end, while the 
edges of the outside blades run straight back, as shown in Fig. i. 
The sets can be distinguished in this way. 

2. The shanks should be adjusted so that the inside blades are 
about an inch higher than the outside blades. 

3. The cutting edges of the inside blades should lie in the same 
plane, those of the outside blades should lie in their plane, and these 
two planes should be parallel. 

4. The cutting edge of each inside blade should be parallel to 
the cutting edge of the corresponding outside blade. In other words, 

2 

27 



1)0th cutting edges of either rig should form the same angle with the 
row as shown in Fig. 2. On most surface cultivators the distance 
])etween the front points of the inside blades should be about twenty- 
two inches, while the distance between the rear points of the same 
blades should be about four inches. After the inside blades have 
been set in this way the outside blades can be set parallel to them. 




Correct Incorrect 

V'x'g. 1. — Correct and Incorrect Method of Setting the Blades 



5. For average conditions each blade should be set at about 
a forty-five degree angle with the surface, as shown at A and B in 
Fig. I. When the blades are set too flat, as at D, they lose suction; 
if set too deep, as at C, they scrape and cause ridging, because the 
soil cannot move smoothly over the blade and thus cannot leave the 
proper blanket on the surface to produce a mulch and to close all 
cracks. 




I'ig. -'• — Both ( iiltiny l-;dges Siiould I'orni ihc Same Angle with the Row 

The Rakes: By all means use the rakes. Not only do they 
level the surface and produce a finer mulch, but they also perform 
the very important function of dragging weeds to the surface for 
exposure to the sun. 

As a rule, set the rakes about five inches apart at the rear, at 
about a twenty-five degree angle with the surface, and low enough 
lo just drag the surface. If the rakes tend to hold the weeds and 
drag them a considerable distance over the surface, they are set too 
straight or too low. 

3 



If the soil is mellow and weedy and the weeds lodge over the 
cutting- edges of the blades, increase the depth slightly if possible, 
set the blades a little steeper, and raise the points slightly. 

The Shovel Cultivator: The shovel cultivator can be used 
under a much greater variety of conditions than the surface blade 
machine, but it is apt to do more damage to the roots. 

A cultivator shovel must be set at the proper angle to cause it 
to penetrate. A common angle is shown at C in Fig. 3. If diffi- 
culty is experienced in getting a sharp shovel to penetrate, lessening 
this angle, or causing the blade to run a little flatter, as at A in Fig. 
3, will usually overcome the trouble. If the shovel is set too flat, 
however, its penetrating ability will be greatly decreased. These 
general rules hold for nearly all conditions, but just what angle is 
best for any particular condition can be determined only by trial. 
Failure to penetrate may also be due to too much tension in the lift- 
ing springs. 




Fig. 3. — Different Angles of Setting Shovels 



If the operator desires as light draft as possible he should use 
great care to secure the proper set of the shovels. If the shovels 
are set a little flatter than necessary and thus have more suction 
than is required, a greater force is needed to hold them at the proper 
depth, and the draft may thus be increased. Shovels set too straight 
and then forced into the ground will also cause increased draft. 

In setting the shovels for light draft, however, one cannot en- 
tirely disregard the way in which they handle the soil. Under given 
soil conditions some shovels may make better pulverization when 
set fairly steep, while others may leave the surface slightly smoother 
when set a little flatter. 

If the rig jumps, skips, or bobs along instead of taking to the 
ground and working steadily, one or all of its shovels are probably 
set too straight, provided of course that the shovels are in good 
shape. 

When all the shovels of one rig are set to throw the soil to or 
from the row, the rig is bound to crowd side wise. If the rigs crowd 
together under these conditions the operator may have to hold them 
apart with his legs, but if the rigs crowd out they can be held to- 
gether with the spread arch or spread chain. If the main purpose is 
simply to throw the soil to or from the row with the front shovels, 
however, this rig crowding can be overcome by setting the rear 
shovel in each rig to throw the soil in the opposite direction. 



27 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 28 
SHOCKING WHEAT AND OATS 

By bhockiug is meant putting together bundles of small grain in. groups of about a 
dozen for the purpose of curing preparatory to threshing. 

Object: All small grain must stand in the field for a considerable number of days 
in order to become dry enough for threshing or for stacking. During this time the grain 
is exposed not only to sunshine but to wind and rain as well. It must therefore be kept 
protected as much as possible from the wet, and by all means it must bei kept off the 







Fig. I — Sefting the First Bundles. Note How Firmly Tliey are Placed Together at the 
Top. They Will Not Fall 

ground, otherwise should the weather chance to be bad for a number of days it is certain 
to sprout, greatly damaging its market value. Three things must be aimed at by a good 
workman in shocking grain: I'irst, a dozen bundles must be put together so that they will 
^tand up against any ordinary wind; second, they must shed rain; and tliird, Ihc work must 
be rapidly done. 



28 



The LoNt; Shock: Many fanners sliotk ^raiii, especially oats, in Icuig shocks; tliat is, 
they set u]i the bundles in long rows by pairs. The reason for choosing the long-shock 
method is that it is rapid. However, the bundles are almost certain to push each other 
over, and ther>2 is no method of capping to shed rain. In a rainy region the grain should 
always be put into the round shock and capped, except only in those rare cases where the 
winds are too severe. 

The Round Shock: The advantage of the round shock is that it can be capped and 
protected against rain. On the other hand, by most methods employed for this process 
(he time consumed for a good job is more than double that required for the long shock. 
The method herein illustrated, however, is almost as rapid as the long-shock method and 
vastly better for all kinds of small grains, unless it may be barley. Even oats are better 
capped, because they shatter less in hauling and the quality of the grain is better. 

Procedure: In the round shock ten bundles are "set up" and two are used for caps. 
There are many ways of assembling these ten bundles, most of them bad, either because the 
bundles will not stand firmly, because they are set so closely together as to exclude all air, 




Tig. -2 — Two Bundles Placed at Right .\ngles to the First Pair. 

Bundles Set Up 



They Support the hirst 



or because the process requires too much time. The particular method hero shown, 
though not commonly employed, is recommended for four reasons. 

1. It makes the strongest sliock known, because the bundles are bracotl in all directions. 

2. It is the most rapid nitthod known. 

3. A few bad bundles do not destroy the shock. 

4. Whereas in most methods of shocking only the best workman can be used at all, 
by this method men may work either singly or in pairs, and one of the pair may be an 
indifferent workman without injury to the quality of the work. 

When working in pairs, the leading man should choose for the first two bundles 
those which seem to be among the largest of the dozen, i^acing either east or west and 
taking one bundle in each hand, holding the heads close together with the butts of the 
bundles far apart, he should drive them firmly into the stubble, being sure that they lean 
squarely against each other so that they will not shut by each other lil:c a f<air of 
scissors. (See I'ig. i-) 

If Ihis Tirsl pair is iin>|i(vlv set. llu- luinill.s will have an an^lc of aliuut 4.c; dcKrties 



with the ground. The common failure is in getting them too straight. (These arc hundl.s 
1 and I in Fig. S) • 

Next he should place a pair of bundles at right angles to the first pair, with licaMs 
well together, and bearing on one of the bundles of pair number i at about the place of 
the band. (See Fig. 2 and bundles 2 and 2 in Fig. S-) If two men are working together 
bundles 3 and 3 will be placed by the second nian. These si.\ bundles fur^nish the strengtli 
of the shock because they brace in all directions. Four other bundles kre next added — 
two on either side. (See 4 and 4- and 5 and s >« Fig. S-) If thee are any bad bundles 
in this particular set, thev should be reserved for this place in the shock, as they have 
nothing to do with its esse'ntial structure. By bad bundles is meant those which are unusu- 
ally short, fuzzy, or filled with weeds. 

Capping: This shock is not quite round. If properly made it will be somewhat longei 
north and south than it is east and west thus securing the best exposure to the sun. 
The purpose in making it slightly oblong is to be sure of a good circulation of air. (Sec 
the arrow in Fig. 5.) There ought always to be room here, as the farmer says, for the dog 
to run through. 




Fig. 



I'lcparing the First Cap Bundle. This Bundle Should Protect the To|i of the 
Shock from the Weather 



Two of the best bundles have been sav'ed for caps. By the best bundles \\c mean 
tliose that have long straight straw and are well bound. These illustrations are faulty 
because they were made in the winter with fuzzy bundles which had been stored for class 
use. In actual practice the straw will be limber and tough, therefore easily "broken 
over" to make a cap. If two men are at work the less skilled of the two should put on 
the first cap, which according to the prevailing winds in most sections of the country 
should be on the south side of the shock. 

To prepare the first cap, take the bundle as shown in Fi(?. 3; one arm holds the 
butt of the bundle against the body and the other hand and arm are used to break the 
straw down above the band, dividing it equally right and left. When the top of tlu- 
))undle has been so divided, catch the butt with both hands, opening it well in equal halvis. 
Do not simply lay this cap on top of the shock, for unless well settled it is certain to 
blow ofT. Drive it down into the heads of the bundles and do not be afraid to put a 



28 



Iii'lc weight uiwii the i.lioik. If i)ropci)y set the poitioii of this buiiJlc nt«ii ihc lianc 
\m11 have an angle oi not far from 45 degrees. 

The second bundle is prepared exactly the same as the first ex- ept that a few straws 
at the top are left without breaking in order to lap over on top of the first bundle, making 
3 kind of ridge for the roof. 



r 



tm 



Fig. 4- 



-Tbc i-iuished Shock. Both Cap Bundles in Place. This Shock Will Not Blow 
Down. Observe the Air Passage in the Side of the Shock 



Finishing the Shock: The only additional point to bear in mind is that in placinp; 
each cap the body of the workman should crowd the shock closely enough to bring in 
the straggling heads and tuck them well under the caps. If care is taken in choosing 
;ind placing the first two pairs of bundles, the shock will stand, and if long straw is chosen 




i_A«S 




l"ig. 5 — Arrangement of Bundles in the Shock 

for the caps, and if placed as directed, this shock will shed water and dry out rapidly 
by tlie action of both sun and wind. There is no need of spending an inordinate amount 
tif time in doing this work. It requires precision in carrying out a well-defined system 
of procedure; nothing more. 



28 



United States Boys' Working Reserve 
Farm Craft Series 



LESSON 29 
MARKET GARDENING 

The food shortage in Europe will demand for some years to 
come exports of meats and cereals from the United States. In 
order that we may make generous contributions of those products, 
\egetables should be more largely grown and used as substitutes for 
meat and cereals. Market gardening requires the maximum amount 
of labor for the area cultivated and this has been the limiting factor 
in all the important gardening centers. Here is a great oppor- 
tunity for the Boys' Working Reserve. 

Methods : It is seldom t'^at two market gardeners even in the 
same community do things in exactly the same way. This makes 
it necessary for student laborers to adapt themselves quickly and 
willingly to the several methods that may be followed in a given 
community. It is not a matter of executing plans in accordance 
w ith your own ideas, but rather of conforming to the wishes of the 
employer wdio is financing the proposition, and to this end certain 
general points must be observed. 

Thoroughness is absolutely essential in the performance of all 
garden work and many garden failures are due to lack of this one 
clement alone. 

Order and System are at a premium in the vegetable garden. 
They count for efficiency and invite favorable comments from em- 
l)loyers. 

Speed in an enterprise involving so much hand work as does 
market gardening is of the utmost importance. The hands should 
be trained to move with dexterity. 

Care of Tools and Implements: Tools are costly and difficult 
to obtain. Leaving them in the field at the end of the day's work 
means that they may disappear. Besides, tools exposed to the 
weather rust out faster than they wear out, and it takes only a few 
moments to clean and scour the metal parts with a piece of burlap 
and put the tool where it belongs. With small tools it is an advan- 
tage for the workmen to retain the same ones day after day, a prac- 
tice which operates as an incentive for keeping them in the best 
possible condition. 

Applying Manure: When coarse stable manure is used it is 
generally applied before the land is plowed. Fine, partly decayed 
manure gives better results when spread after the land is plowed 
and then thoroughly mixed with the soil by frequent harrowing. 
When applying either coarse or fine stable manure, it should be dis- 
tributed evenly and uniformly over the ground and not in lumps 
or patches. 

Tillage : Most soils should never be plowed, harrowed, rolled 
or cultivated when wet, for this is certain to injure their physical 

I 

29 



properties. A simple test is to squeeze in the hand as much soil 
as can be conveniently held. If, after opening the hand, the soil 
crumbles and falls apart, tillage may proceed without danger of 
injury; if the soil particles remain intact and the ball of earth does 
not break apart readily, no tillage of any kind should be undertaken 
until the ground is drier. The tillage of wet soil, unless it be sand 
or muck, invariably results in the formation of lumps, and these 
make the land hard to work for several years and decrease crop 
yields. 

Plowing: The most important of all the tillage operations is 
plowing. It should be as deep as the character of the soil will per- 
mit. The furrow slices should be of medium width and left on edge 
as much as possible rather than in a perfectly flat position. Heavy 
applications of manure, or a large amount of any kind of coarse 
Aegetable matter plowed under instead of between the furrows, 
are hkely to interfere with the upward movement of water in the soil. 

Harrowing: Whether seeds are to be sown or plants set, the 
soil should be thoroughly pulveriaed. This is accomplished by har- 
rowing repeatedly until the surface of the land is smooth and the 
.'^oil reduced to a fine state of division. Most market gardeners have 
special disk harrows which are exceedingly valuable in the work of 
leveling and pulverizing. Drags or floats made of heavy plank arc 
also used to a large extent for this purpose. 

Seed Sowing : The requirements for germination are heat, 
moisture, and oxygen. If the student gardener will keep these points 
in mind, he will be careful to sow seeds under the very best condi-. 
tions. 

It is folly to sow seeds in lumpy, poorly prepared ground, because 
the soil particles will not settle closely around the seed ; under such 
conditions an adequate supply of moisture cannot enter the seed., 
unless there are frequent and profuse rains. Poorly prepared soils, 
too, dry out very rapidly and thus prevent rapid growth of the 
young plants. 

It is important to avoid sowing more seed than the employer 
considers necessary in order to obtain a good stand of plants. The 
extravagant use of seed is not only wasteful, but it may necessitate 
a large amount of work in thinning. At the same time we should be 
careful to use enough seed. 

The depth of covering is a matter which should have the most 
careful consideration. Ordinarily the larger the seeds the greater 
should be the depth of covering. Again, the character of the soil and 
the .season of the year also have a bearing on this question. Seed- 
lings are able to force their way through a much greater covering of 
sandy soil than of stiff, tenacious clay. 

Mechanical seed drills are employed almost entirely by com- 
mercial growers. Whether these are used or the seed is sown by 
hand, the rows should be as straight as they can be made. Straight 
rows not only facilitate cultivation and reduce injury by the culti- 
vator, but they enhance the appearance of the market garden, and all 
of us would much rather work in an attractive garden than in one 
showing crooked rows and haphazard methods. 



As stated before, the soil particles should come into close contact 
with the seed, and for this reason it is generally an advantage to 
firm the soil over the seeds immediately after they have been sown. 
This may be done by the use of the feet, or perhaps with the hoe 
blade or other device. 

Transplanting : Again, a fine, moist soil is essential to success- 
ful transplanting, and the all important thing is to see that the soil 
is brought into the closest contact with the roots. Some of the most 
extensive growers use transplanting machines. They do the work 
well and save labor. When machines are not used, furrows of the 
proper depth are often made with srriall shovels attached to wheel 
garden hoes or perhaps to horse-drawn implements. Trowels and 
(libbers of various descriptions are in p"eneral use among gardeners. 
As a rule, the opening in the soil is made with a dibber or trowel 
in the right hand. The left hand sets the plant in the hole, generally 
a little deeper than it stood in the seed bed, and holds it in place 
while the right hand draws enough soil over the roots to hold the 
plant erect. After both hands have been used to firm the soil about 
I he roots, the hole is filled, and, as you move along the row to set the 
next plant, additional pressure is brought to bear on the soil over the 
roots. If the soil is well supplied with moisture, watering after 
transplanting will be unnecessary. As in the case of seed sowing, 
we should also be careful to have the rows straight. 

Cultivation : All the crops grown by market gardeners require 
mure or less cultivation. The stirring of the soil by any suitable tool 
or implement conserves soil moisture, aerates the soil, modifies soil 
temperature and destroys weeds. Cultivation should be frequent 
enough to maintain a surface mulch of very fine soil. Cultivators 
with many small teeth are more effective for this purpose than are 
those with a few large shovels. The ideal plan is to cultivate the 
land after every rain, as soon as the ground becomes dry enough, 
but gardeners are often so busy that this cannot be done. We should 
bear in mind that the cultivation of wet soils is just as harmful to 
their physical properties as plowing when they are wet. 

The student workman should be cautious to cultivate with proper 
care. It is an easy matter to run the wheel-hoe down the middle 
of the space between the rows without stirring the ground near the 
I'lants. This kind of cultivation will not have the approval of the 
up-to-date grower. He will expect the cultivator to be run just as 
close to the plants as is possible without damaging them. He will 
likely be willing to sacrifice a few leaves or even an occasional plant 
in order to have the ground practically all covered. Nor will he be 
])leased if you barely scratch the surface of the soil. Here is an 
opportunity to use some muscle and to develop more muscle by forc- 
ing the cultivator teeth into the soil to the proper depth. Your em- 
])loyer will tell you how he wants the ground cultivated for each 
crop and at different stages of growth. 

Hoeing: A certain amount of hoeing is required in all market 
gardens and on all truck farms. It is work that requires thorough- 
ness and patience. Wr will not attempt to describe the great variety 
of hoes used by comnierciai growers. All of them have their special 



29 



uses. The most important thing to keep in mind in using any kind 
of a hoe is to see that you stir the ground not touched by the wheel- 
hoe or horse cultivator. If we are not thorough and faithful in this 
respect, weeds may spring up in great numbers on the missed area, 
and the lack of thorough tillage will prevent the fullest development 
of the crop under cultivation. 

Special skill may be developed in the use of the hoe. In the first 
place we should select the right hoe for the particular piece of work 
to be done. Then we should see that the blade is set at the proper 
angle with the handle to suit the person who is to use the hoe. The 
cutting edge should also be kept sharp by the frequent use of a 
coarse file. Then study the effect of different movements of the hoe. 
Note that it is wholly unnecessary to raise the blade to any great 
height from the ground, as you would in the use of an axe or a 
mattock. Also observe that a drawing motion of the blade is more 
effective than a chopping motion. 

Weedinc : There are various kinds of small weeding tools com- 
monly called weeders. They are employed between small plants ni 
the rows, with such crops as onions, beets, carrots, etc. An immense, 
amount of time may be wasted in weeding. Unless the work is 
done well it is hardly worth doing at all. Moreover, the hands must 
move rapidly if much work is to be accomplished in a day. 

Thtnninc: It is necessary when we get too thick a stand of 
plants like beets, onions, carrots, radish, lettuce, etc., to thin them 
out. The surplus plants may be pulled out or removed with the 
hand weeder at the same time that young weeds are destroyed. We 
should endeavor to get rid of the weakest plants, and at the same 
lime strive for a uniform spacing of the plants. 

Spraying: One of the essential operations of all well-managed 
market gardens is spraying. Thoroughness of application is the 
most important point for employees to keep in mind. Many a crop 
has been lost from disease because all parts of the plant susceptible 
to attack from disease germs have not been well covered with the 
spray material. In most instances we should be careful to see that 
the under surfaces of the leaves as well as the upper are fully cov- 
ered with the spray. 

Harvesting: A few don'ts are in order in this connection. 
Don't harvest a tomato or an ear of corn or anything else until it is 
fully ready for market. Be alert and don't miss specimens that have 
reached the proper state of development and should be marketed. 
Be careful and don't bruise or damage the specimens that are being 
harvested. Be speedy and don't lag in gathering the crops, for the 
season's profits and the sustenance of our teeming city population 
depend largely upon prompt harvesting. 

Preparation for Market: Attractiveness is the keynote to 
the successful marketing of garden crops. If the vegetables look 
well when they reach the market, they generally sell well. This 
means that they must be clean, they must be carefully graded, and 
they must be tastefully arranged in the packages. Student workmen 
should vie with each other in their effort to prepare the best appear- 
ing packages, and in the shortest possible time. 



29 



SSic-^'i 







'..v?---- A-,- .-■ -- • -^^ <■-■..■ ^ -;• ■■'■. '■ .,•■-. 
fiL:--^ ■ ^^ -■.■■_. _.' ■. ,: • > ; ■ .- . 






U. S. Department of Labor 

WiLUAM B. WiLSON', Secretary- 
Louis F. Post, Assistant Secretary 
Fkux FRAWKFuaxER, Chairman 

War Labor Policies Board 



U. S. Employment Service 

John B. Densmore, Director General 
Nathan A. Smtth, Assistant Director General 



U. S. Boys' Working Reserve 

William E. Hall, National Director 

Hubert W. Wells, Associate Director, Educational Section 
Charles A. Parcells, Associate Director, Field Organization Section 
J. A. VanDis, Associate Director, Welfare and Supervision Section 
Jesse B. Davis, Associate Director, Industrial Placement Section 
Richard Hatton, Director of Publicity 



